Table 2.

Univariate analysis of sociodemographic factors influencing 4⁺ANC visits in nine sub-Saharan African countries

Variables	Ghana	Kenya	Malawi	Namibia	Rwanda	Senegal	Tanzania	Uganda	Zambia	Total
	(3224)	(10 981)	(9541)	(2286)	(4416)	(6552)	(5536)	(7979)	(5487)	(56 002)
Age (grouped)
15–19	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
20–24	1.40 (0.92,2.13)	1.32 (1.13 to 1.54)	1.21 (1.05 to 1.39)	1.79 (1.28 to 2.50)	1.26 (0.88 to 1.79)	1.34 (1.10 to 1.62)	1.10 (0.90 to 1.34)	1.15 (0.98 to 1.36)	1.17 (0.97 to 1.41)	1.21 (1.13 to 1.29)
25–29	1.89 (1.24 to 2.87)	1.37 (1.18 to 1.60)	1.38 (1.19 to 1.60)	2.21 (1.56 to 3.13)	1.36 (0.96 to 1.93)	1.31 (1.08 to 1.59)	1.16 (0.95 to 1.42)	1.18 (0.99 to 1.39)	1.07 (0.89 to 1.30)	1.27 (1.19 to 1.36)
30–34	1.70 (1.12 to 2.58)	1.26 (1.07 to 1.48)	1.43 (1.22 to 1.66)	2.34 (1.61 to 3.40)	1.15 (0.81 to 1.64)	1.28 (1.05 to 1.57)	1.07 (0.87 to 1.32)	1.11 (0.94 to 1.33)	1.16 (0.95 to 1.42)	1.23 (1.15 to 1.32)
35 and above	1.52 (1.01 to 2.29)	1.10 (0.93 to 1.29)	1.39 (1.19 to 1.62)	1.90 (1.33 to 2.71)	1.03 (0.72 to 1.46)	1.14 (0.94 to 1.39)	0.87 (0.71 to 1.07)	0.83 (0.70 to 0.99)	1.04 (0.85 to 1.26)	1.10 (1.02 to 1.17)
Place of residence
Urban	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Rural	0.40 (0.32 to 0.50)	0.60 (0.55 to 0.65)	0.69 (0.62 to 0.77)	0.66 (0.54 to 0.81)	0.98 (0.85 to 1.13)	0.43 (0.38 to 0.47)	0.52 (0.45 to 0.58)	0.68 (0.60 to 0.76)	1.26 (1.12 to 1.42)	0.61 (0.59 to 0.63)
Women’s education
No schooling	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Primary	1.23 (0.96 to 1.58)	1.49 (1.35 to 1.65)	1.15 (1.01 to 1.30)	1.77 (1.24 to 2.51)	1.33 (1.11 to 1.59)	1.70 (1.50 to 1.93)	1.40 (1.22 to 1.62)	1.13 (0.99 to 1.30)	1.22 (1.01 to 1.47)	1.30 (1.25 to 1.36)
Secondary	2.61 (2.06 to 3.30)	2.23 (1.98 to 2.51)	1.38 (1.18 to 1.60)	3.41 (2.46 to 4.72)	1.40 (1.11 to 1.77)	2.13 (1.76 to 2.58)	2.36 (1.99 to 2.80)	1.61 (1.37 to 1.90)	1.18 (0.97 to 1.43)	2.21 (2.10 to 2.33)
Higher	3.51 (2.86 to 4.17)	5.91 (4.85 to 7.20)	3.72 (2.58 to 5.37)	14.43 (5.6 to 37.14)	4.91 (3.11 to 7.78)	7.11 (2.43 to 20.8)	8.54 (3.98 to 18.35)	2.65 (2.06 to 3.40)	3.38 (2.28 to 5.01)	4.97 (4.42 to 5.58)
Husband’s education
No schooling	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Primary	1.35 (0.97 to 1.87)	1.57 (1.34 to 1.84)	1.03 (0.88 to 1.20)	1.46 (0.96 to 2.22)	1.23 (1.03 to 1.47)	1.82 (1.54 to 2.15)	1.47 (1.23 to 1.76)	0.95 (0.80 to 1.14)	1.11 (0.84 to 1.45)	1.25 (1.19 to 1.31)
Secondary	2.05 (1.63 to 2.58)	2.27 (1.90 to 2.71)	1.21 (1.03 to 1.43)	2.38 (1.66 to 3.43)	1.17 (0.90 to 1.51)	2.38 (1.95 to 2.91)	2.59 (2.10 to 3.20)	1.33 (1.09 to 1.62)	1.09 (0.84 to 1.43)	2.06 (1.95 to 2.18)
Higher	7.03 (3.66 to 13.49)	4.19 (3.27 to 5.37)	2.25 (1.73 to 2.92)	14.40 (4.38 to 47.36)	2.49 (1.72 to 3.60)	3.12 (2.12 to 4.58)	3.98 (2.57 to 6.18)	1.96 (1.55 to 2.50)	2.26 (1.58 to 3.24)	3.52 (3.19 to 3.88)
Women’s occupation
Not working O/H	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Professional/Skilled work	2.27 (1.73 to 2.97)	2.33 (1.86 to 2.91)	1.35 (1.17 to 1.56)	1.88 (1.47 to 2.40)	1.45 (1.11 to 1.89)	1.33 (1.17 to 1.51)	1.72 (1.35 to 2.19)	1.42 (1.23 to 1.63)	1.29 (1.10 to 1.51)	1.73 (1.64 to 1.82)
Agriculture	0.80 (0.62 to 1.03)	0.95 (0.83 to 1.09)	1.05 (0.95 to 1.15)	2.26 (0.95 to 5.39)	1.20 (0.95 to 1.51)	0.62 (0.54 to 0.71)	0.63 (0.55 to 0.73)	1.06 (0.93 to 1.20)	1.24 (1.08 to 1.42)	0.87 (0.84 to 0.91)
Unskilled	8.02 (1.94 to 33.15)	1.25 (1.10 to 1.43)	1.12 (0.99 to 1.27)	1.72 (1.22 to 2.42)	0.84 (0.58 to 1.21)	1.40 (1.16 to 1.68)	1.09 (0.92 to 1.29)	1.58 (1.31 to 1.91)	1.02 (0.84 to 1.24)	1.13 (1.07 to 1.20)
Husband’s occupation
Not working O/H		1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Professional/Skilled work	1.00(ref)	1.54 (0.99 to 2.39)	1.18 (1.00 to 1.39)	0.65 (0.08 to 5.28)	0.82 (0.37 to 1.84)	1.06 (0.78 to 1.46)	2.21 (1.17 to 4.16)	1.32 (1.00 to 1.74)	1.16 (0.92 to 1.45)	1.35 (1.22 to 1.49)
Agriculture	0.30 (0.23 to 0.39)	0.76 (0.49 to 1.18)	0.98 (0.84 to 1.15)	0.27 (0.03 to 2.18)	0.86 (0.38 to 1.92)	0.52 (0.38 to 0.72)	1.16 (0.62 to 2.17)	0.86 (0.65 to 1.14)	1.21 (0.97 to 1.51)	0.86 (0.78 to 0.95)
Unskilled	0.89 (0.60 to 1.32)	1.09 (0.71 to 1.69)	1.00 (0.85 to 1.19)	0.55 (0.07 to 4.51)	0.74 (0.32 to 1.67)	0.96 (0.69 to 1.34)	1.97 (1.04 to 3.72)	1.15 (0.85 to 1.55)	0.97 (0.76 to 1.24)	1.10 (0.99 to 1.22)
Wealth quintile
Poorest	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Poorer	1.22 (0.96 to 1.56)	1.37 (1.23 to 1.52)	1.11 (0.98 to 1.25)	1.03 (0.77 to 1.37)	1.15 (0.96 to 1.37)	1.50 (1.31 to 1.72)	1.13 (0.95 to 1.33)	1.16 (1.02 to 1.32)	1.04 (0.89 to 1.22)	1.19 (1.14 to 1.25)
Middle	1.67 (1.26 to 2.20)	1.70 (1.52 to 1.90)	1.07 (0.95 to 1.21)	1.40 (1.04 to 1.88)	1.22 (1.01 to 1.47)	2.10 (1.82 to 2.42)	1.35 (1.14 to 1.59)	1.25 (1.09 to 1.43)	0.90 (0.76 to 1.05)	1.34 (1.27 to 1.41)
Richer	4.40 (2.94 to 6.59)	2.12 (1.89 to 2.39)	1.19 (1.05 to 1.35)	1.70 (1.25 to 2.31)	1.18 (0.98 to 1.43)	3.48 (2.96 to 4.10)	2.07 (1.76 to 2.44)	1.48 (1.29 to 1.71)	0.72 (0.61 to 0.86)	1.60 (1.52 to 1.69)
Richest	13.36 (6.53 to 27.33)	3.41 (3.00 to 3.88)	1.65 (1.45 to 1.87)	2.59 (1.77 to 3.80)	1.10 (0.92 to 1.32)	5.93 (4.81 to 7.31)	3.02 (2.53 to 3.60)	1.87 (1.62 to 2.16)	1.18 (0.98 to 1.42)	2.13 (2.02 to 2.25)
Birth order
First	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Second	1.18 (0.85 to 1.65)	0.91 (0.81 to 1.02)	0.89 (0.79 to 1.00)	1.14 (0.86 to 1.50)	0.88 (0.74 to 1.03)	0.93 (0.79 to 1.08)	0.82 (0.70 to 0.97)	1.01 (0.87 to 1.16)	0.97 (0.82 to 1.14)	0.93 (0.88 to 0.98)
Third	0.85 (0.62 to 1.18)	0.80 (0.71 to 0.91)	0.97 (0.85 to 1.10)	1.41 (1.01 to 1.96)	0.83 (0.69 to 1.00)	0.75 (0.64 to 0.88)	0.72 (0.61 to 0.86)	0.95 (0.82 to 1.11)	0.89 (0.74 to 1.06)	0.87 (0.82 to 0.92)
Fourth	1.06 (0.74 to 1.53)	0.68 (0.60 to 0.78)	0.98 (0.86 to 1.12)	0.86 (0.61 to 1.23)	0.61 (0.50 to 0.76)	0.73 (0.61 to 0.87)	0.65 (0.54 to 0.79)	0.91 (0.77 to 1.07)	1.04 (0.85 to 1.26)	0.81 (0.76 to 0.86)
Fifth & above	0.56 (0.42 to 0.73)	0.51 (0.46 to 0.57)	0.96 (0.86 to 1.08)	0.59 (0.45 to 0.79)	0.58 (0.49 to 0.69)	0.58 (0.50 to 0.66)	0.50 (0.43 to 0.58)	0.71 (0.62 to 0.80)	0.82 (0.71 to 0.96)	0.65 (0.62 to 0.68)
Frequency of listening to radio/ watching TV/ reading newspaper or magazine
Not at all	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Less than once a week	1.88 (1.42 to 2.48)	1.59 (1.39 to 1.81)	1.05 (0.94 to 1.18)	2.01 (1.46 to 2.78)	1.01 (0.83 to 1.22)	1.19 (0.99 to 1.42)	1.35 (1.16 to 1.57)	1.29 (1.11 to 1.49)	0.97 (0.80 to 1.17)	1.15 (1.09 to 1.21)
At least once a week	4.02 (3.11 to 5.20)	2.08 (1.90 to 2.28)	1.27 (1.16 to 1.39)	2.91 (2.21 to 3.83)	1.14 (0.96 to 1.34)	1.91 (1.64 to 2.22)	2.00 (1.73 to 2.32)	1.52 (1.37 to 1.69)	1.14 (0.96 to 1.36)	1.53 (1.47 to 1.59)

Bold font indicates a significant difference from reference at p<0.05.

4⁺ANC, four or more antenal care; O/H, outside home.