Table 3.

Adjusted multivariable analysis of sociodemographic factors influencing 4⁺ANC visits in nine sub-Saharan African countries

Variables	Ghana	Kenya	Malawi	Namibia	Rwanda	Senegal	Tanzania	Uganda	Zambia	Overall *
Place of residence
Urban	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Rural	0.84 (0.61 to 1.15)	0.83 (0.72 to 0.90)	0.83 (0.71 to 0.96)	0.83 (0.57 to 1.21)	0.95 (0.77 to 1.18)	0.73 (0.62 to 0.84)	0.83 (0.69 to 1.01)	0.86 (0.72 to 1.01)	1.48 (1.20 to 1.82)	0.86 (0.81 to 0.91)
Women’s education
No schooling	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Primary	1.06 (0.78.1.43)	1.12 (0.90 to 1.39)	1.09 (0.94 to 1.27)	1.34 (0.83 to 2.16)	1.20 (0.99 to 1.46)	1.06 (0.91 to 1.23)	1.04 (0.88 to 1.22)	1.03 (0.87 to 1.22)	1.12 (0.90 to 1.41)	1.14 (1.07 to 1.21)
Secondary	1.47 (1.05 to 2.05)	1.23 (0.94 to 1.60)	1.11 (0.91 to 1.35)	1.78 (1.04 to 3.05)	1.28 (0.95 to 1.74)	1.08((0.84 to 1.4)	1.00 (0.79 to 1.28)	1.19 (0.96 to 1.47)	1.05 (0.81 to 1.38)	1.17 (1.08 to 1.21)
Higher	4.82 (0.6 to 37.23)	2.17 (1.42 to 3.32)	2.26 (1.42 to 3.60)	2.13 (0.51 to 8.93)	3.82 (2.17 to 6.73)	1.78 (0.58 to 5.47)	2.19 (0.91 to 5.30)	1.30 (0.92 to 1.83)	2.06 (1.20 to 3.55)	1.96 (1.65 to 2.33)
Husband’s education
No schooling	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Primary	1.04 (0.73 to 1.48)	1.08 (0.87 to 1.36)	0.97 (0.83 to 1.15)	1.11 (0.71 to 1.75)	1.10 (0.91 to 1.33)	1.35 (1.13 to 1.61)	1.18 (0.98 to 1.42)	0.86 (0.70 to 1.05)	1.07 (0.81 to 1.42)	1.12 (1.05 to 1.20)
Secondary	0.97 (0.72 to 1.33)	1.20 (0.93 to 1.56)	1.06 (0.88 to 1.27)	1.21 (0.77 to 1.88)	0.93 (0.69 to 1.24)	1.36 (1.09 to 1.71)	1.35 (1.05 to 1.72)	1.01 (0.80 to 1.26)	1.15 (0.86 to 1.54)	1.17 (1.09 to 1.27)
Higher	1.42 (0.69 to 2.93)	1.41 (1.00 to 1.97)	1.42 (1.03 to 1.95)	3.57 (0.9 to 14.17)	1.42 (0.88 to 2.27)	1.32 (0.86 to 2.02)	1.38 (0.84 to 2.27)	1.22 (0.91 to 1.63)	1.91 (1.23 to 2.96)	1.48 (1.31 to 1.69)
Mother’s occupation
Not working O/H	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Professional/ Skilled work	1.99 (1.46 to 2.27)	1.19 (0.91 to 1.56)	0.97 (0.81 to 1.15)	1.64 (1.11 to 2.44)	1.23 (0.91 to 1.66)	1.09 (0.94 to 1.26)	1.24 (0.93 to 1.65)	1.38 (1.18 to 1.62)	1.24 (1.01 to 1.50)	1.19 (1.11 to 1.27)
Agriculture	1.44 (1.06 to 1.97)	0.98 (0.83 to 1.15)	1.08 (0.96 to 1.19)	2.25 (0.75 to 6.72)	1.16 (0.87 to 1.53)	0.89 (0.76 to 1.04)	0.89 (0.75 to 1.07)	1.26 (1.09 to 1.46)	1.14 (0.96 to 1.35)	1.07 (1.01 to 1.13)
Unskilled	15.54 (2.1 to 114.9)	1.06 (0.91 to 1.24)	1.07 (0.92 to 1.22)	1.58 (0.85 to 2.97)	0.79 (0.52 to 1.21)	1.09 (0.87 to 1.35)	0.95 (0.78 to 1.16)	1.62 (1.28 to 2.05)	0.96 (0.76 to 1.23)	1.13 (1.05 to 1.21)
Wealth quintile
Poorest	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Poorer	0.93 (0.70 to 1.23)	1.09 (0.91 to 1.32)	1.07 (0.94 to 1.23)	0.74 (0.48 to 1.13)	1.06 (0.87 to 1.28)	1.37 (1.19 to 1.58)	1.05 (0.87 to 1.26)	1.18 (1.02 to 1.37)	1.09 (0.91 to 1.32)	1.12 (1.06 to 1.19)
Middle	0.93 (0.64 to 1.36)	1.18 (0.96 to 1.45)	1.09 (0.94 to 1.26)	0.85 (0.53 to 1.36)	1.12 (0.91 to 1.37)	1.56 (1.32 to 1.86)	1.15 (0.95 to 1.40)	1.19 (1.01 to 1.40)	0.96 (0.78 to 1.19)	1.18 (1.11 to 1.26)
Richer	1.88 (1.09 to 3.23)	1.21 (0.97 to 1.51)	1.07 (0.92 to 1.25)	0.79 (0.45 to 1.40)	1.04 (0.84 to 1.30)	2.26 (1.83 to 2.79)	1.62 (1.31 to 2.00)	1.29 (1.08 to 1.5)	0.86 (0.64 to 1.16)	1.32 (1.23 to 1.42)
Richest	4.74 (1.9 to 11.95)	1.55 (1.19 to 2.04)	1.23 (1.02 to 1.50)	1.31 (0.57 to 3.00)	0.77 (0.57 to 1.02)	3.62 (2.78 to 4.72)	1.69 (1.27 to 2.24)	1.27 (1.02 to 1.60)	1.17 (0.81 to 1.69)	1.41 (1.29 to 1.55)
Birth order
First	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Second	1.08 (0.72 to 1.63)	0.71 (0.58 to 0.87)	0.83 (0.72 to 0.95)	1.22 (0.74 to 1.99)	0.72 (0.60 to 0.87)	0.88 (0.74 to 1.06)	0.82 (0.68 to 1.00)	0.95 (0.80 to 1.13)	0.87 (0.70 to 1.08)	0.84 (0.79 to 0.90)
Third	0.77 (0.52 to 1.15)	0.62 (0.51 to 0.76)	0.91 (0.79 to 1.05)	1.06 (0.64 to 1.76)	0.68 (0.55 to 0.83)	0.78 (0.65 to 0.94)	0.72 (0.59 to 0.89)	0.97 (0.81 to 1.16)	0.76 (0.61 to 0.96)	0.79 (0.74 to 0.85)
Fourth	1.06 (0.69 to 1.64)	0.56 (0.45 to 0.70)	0.95 (0.82 to 1.11)	1.12 (0.65 to 1.94)	0.52 (0.42 to 0.66)	0.76 (0.62 to 0.92)	0.71 (0.57 to 0.88)	0.88 (0.73 to 1.07)	0.91 (0.71 to 1.17)	0.77 (0.72 to 0.83)
Fifth & above	0.75 (0.52 to 1.08)	0.50 (0.41 to 0.61)	0.98 (0.85 to 1.12)	0.79 (0.49 to 1.26)	0.50 (0.41 to 0.61)	0.68 (0.58 to 0.80)	0.61 (0.51 to 0.73)	0.77 (0.65 to 0.90)	0.73 (0.59 to 0.90)	0.68 (0.64 to 0.73)
Frequency of listening to radio/reading newspaper/magazines
Not at all	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)	1.00(ref)
Less than once a week	1.47 (1.08 to 2.00)	1.35 (1.08 to 1.68)	1.05 (0.94 to 1.20)	1.94 (1.22 to 3.07)	0.95 (0.78 to 1.17)	1.06 (0.87 to 1.29)	1.11 (0.93 to 1.33)	1.13 (0.96 to 1.34)	1.01 (0.80 to 1.28)	1.08 (1.01 to 1.15)
At least once a week	2.62 (1.96 to 3.50)	1.21 (1.02 to 1.44)	1.09 (0.98 to 1.22)	2.31 (1.51 to 3.53)	1.07 (0.88 to 1.30)	1.14 (0.96 to 1.35)	1.34 (1.12 to 1.60)	1.24 (1.09 to 1.41)	1.05 (0.85 to 1.30)	1.22 (1.15 to 1.29)

All are adjusted for sociodemographic factors and media exposure.

Bold font indicates a significant difference from reference at p<0.05.

*Adjusted for sociodemographic factors, media exposure and country.

4⁺ANC, four or more antenal care; O/H, outside home.