Table 1.
Selected characteristics of studies included in the systematic review
| Authors | Year | Country | Design | Sample size | Outcomes | Risk of Bias |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agyei and Mbamanya [25] | 1989 | Kenya | CS (WFS) | 6193 | Number and timing of births | Serious |
| Ali et al. [26] | 2020 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 15842 | Number and timing of births | Serious |
| Ayane et al. [27] | 2019 | Ethiopia | CS | 314 | Birth intervals | Serious |
| Baytekus et al. [28] | 2019 | Ethiopia | CS | 742 | Nutritional status | Serious |
| Begum et al. [29] | 2015 | India | CS | 1137 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Berlie and Alamerew [30] | 2018 | Ethiopia | CS | 201 | Number and timing of births | Serious |
| Birhanu et al. [31] | 2019 | Ethiopia | CS (DHS) | 2679 | Number and timing of births | Critical |
| De Groot et al. [32] | 2018 | Ghana | CS | 2497 | Number and timing of births; contraception; mental health; others | Serious-Criticala |
| Delprato and Akyeampong [33] | 2017 | 39 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia | CS (DHS) | from 21544 to 209617 | Maternal health care | Serious |
| Efevbera et al. [34] | 2019 | 35 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa | CS (DHS) | 249269 | Nutritional status; number and timing of births | Serious |
| Erulkar [35] | 2013 | Ethiopia | CS | 1506 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Fakhari et al. [36] | 2020 | Iran | CS | 530 | Mental health | Serious |
| Gebremedhin and Betre [37] | 2009 | Ethiopia | CS | 1376 | Number and timing of birth | Serious |
| Gebrezgi et al. [38] | 2017 | Ethiopia | CS | 422 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Godha et al. [39] | 2013 | India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan | CS (DHS) | 14628 (India), 2129 (Bangladesh), 1658(Nepal), 1546 (Pakistan) | Number of timing of births; birth intervals; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; contraception; maternal health care | Serious |
| Habyarimana and Ramroop [40] | 2018 | Rwanda | CS (DHS) | 6841 | Contraceptive use | Serious |
| Hailemariam and Haddis [41] | 2011 | Ethiopia | CS (DHS) | 4121 | Contraceptive use | Serious |
| Hong Le et al. [42] | 2014 | Viet Nam | CS | 1701 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Imasiku et al. [43] | 2013 | Zambia | CS (DHS) | 4343 | Contraceptive use | Serious |
| John, Edmeades, and Murithi [44] | 2019 | Niger and Ethiopia | CS | 2463 (Niger), 3501 (Ethiopia) | Mental health | Serious |
| John, Edmeades, Murithi, et al. [45] | 2019 | Ethiopia | CS | 3396 | Mental health | Serious |
| Kamal [46] | 2012 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 9572 | Number of timing of births; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; contraceptive use | Serious |
| Kamal [47] | 2013 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 1013 (induced abortion); 480 (unintended pregnancy) | Unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination | Serious |
| Kamal and Hassan [48] | 2015 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 15779 | Unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination | Serious |
| Kidman [22] | 2016 | 34 countries | CS (DHS) | 39877 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Kidman and Heymann [23] | 2018 | 47 countries in multiple regions | CS (DHS) | from 64100 to 338575 | Number of timing of births; contraceptive use; intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Le Strat et al. [21] | 2011 | United States | CS | 18645 | Mental health | Serious |
| Misunas et al. [24] | 2019 | 15 countries in multiple regions | CS (DHS) | not stated | Number and timing of births; Contraceptive use; others | Serious |
| Nasrullah et al. [49] | 2013 | Pakistan | CS (DHS) | 1404 | Maternal health care | Serious |
| Nasrullah, Muazzam, et al. [50] | 2014 | Pakistan | CS (DHS) | 1560 | Number of timing of births; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination | Serious |
| Nasrullah, Zakar, et al. [51] | 2014 | Pakistan | CS (DHS) | 589 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Nigatu et al. [52] | 2018 | Ethiopia | CS | 322 | Nutritional status | Serious |
| Olamijuwon et al. [53] | 2017 | 18 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa | CS (DHS) | 25327 | Contraceptive use; intimate partner violence; maternal health care | Serious |
| Onagoruwa and Wodon [54] | 2018 | 15 countries in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa | CS (DHS) | from 1441 to 10285 | Number of timing of births | Serious |
| Oshiro et al. [55] | 2011 | Nepal | CS | 905 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Pandey and Singh [56] | 2015 | India | CS (DHS) | 54918 | Contraceptive use | Serious |
| Paul [57] | 2018 | India | CS | 35253 | Unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; others | Serious |
| Paul and Chouhan [58] | 2019 | India | CS (DHS) | 190898 | Maternal health care | Serious |
| Prakash et al. [59] | 2011 | India | CS (DHS) | 39026 | Others | Serious |
| Rahman et al. [60] | 2014 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 2174 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Rahman et al. [61] | 2018 | Bangladesh | Cohort | 1183 | Nutritional status | Serious |
| Raj [62] | 2010 | India | CS (DHS) | 14628 | Unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; Birth intervals; contraceptive use; others | Serious |
| Raj et al. [63] | 2009 | India | CS (DHS) | 14873 | Number of timing of births; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; contraceptive use | Serious |
| Raj et al. [64] | 2010 | India | CS (DHS) | 10514 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Raj et al. [65] | 2013 | Nepal | CS (DHS) | 2439 | Contraceptive use | Serious |
| Santhya et al. [66] | 2010 | India | CS | 8314 | Contraceptive use; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; maternal health care; intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Sekine and Carter [67] | 2019 | Nepal | CS (DHS) | 3970 | Maternal health care | Serious |
| Singh et al. [68] | 2019 | India | CS | 350 | Others | Critical |
| Solanke [69] | 2019 | Nigeria | CS (DHS) | 25852 | Number and timing of births | Serious |
| Speizer and Pearson [70] | 2011 | India | CS (DHS) | 59841 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Tenkorang [71] | 2019 | Ghana | CS | 2289 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Thakur et al. [72] | 2015 | India | Case-control | 452 | Others | Serious |
| Thekdi et al. [73] | 2014 | India | CS | 400 | Others | Critical |
| Uddin et al. [74] | 2019 | Bangladesh | CS (DHS) | 16099 | Maternal health care | Serious |
| Yaya et al. [75] | 2019 | 34 countries in sub-Saharan Africa | CS (DHS) | 60215 | Number of timing of births; unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, and pregnancy termination; contraceptive use | Serious |
| Yimer et al. [76] | 2016 | Ethiopia | CS | 434 | Nutritional status | Serious |
| Yount et al. [77] | 2016 | Bangladesh | Cohort | 3902 | Intimate partner violence | Serious |
| Yusuf et al. [78] | 2018 | Nigeria | CS (DHS) | 5277 | Nutritional status | Serious |
Abbreviation: CS cross-sectional
aAssessment differs depending on the outcome being assessed