. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Feb 15.

Published in final edited form as: Soc Indic Res. 2021 Jun 12;158(3):947–990. doi: 10.1007/s11205-021-02712-9

Table 8.

Regression results on multidimensional poverty incidence and deprivation score with control variables

Time points	Year 1 – Baseline			Year 2 – Baseline			Year 3 – Baseline			Year 4 – Baseline
Models	(1)	(2)	(3)	(1)	(2)	(3)	(1)	(2)	(3)	(1)	(2)	(3)
Panel 1: MPI
Bridges	−0.142^** (0.053)	−0.142^** (0.054)	−0.143^*** (0.050)	−0.134^** (0.053)	−0.126^** (0.053)	−0.121^** (0.049)	−0.168^** (0.063)	−0.168^** (0.064)	−0.165^*** (0.060)	−0.028 (0.046)	−0.033 (0.046)	−0.029 (0.046)
Bridges PLUS	−0.114^** (0.049)	−0.114^** (0.051)	−0.125^** (0.047)	−0.214^*** (0.047)	−0.213^*** (0.046)	−0.216^*** (0.043)	−0.204^*** (0.060)	−0.203^*** (0.060)	−0.207^*** (0.057)	−0.106^*** (0.034)	−0.105^*** (0.035)	−0.103^*** (0.036)
Double orphan	−0.030 (0.051)	−0.044 (0.050)	−0.039 (0.051)	−0.010 (0.054)	−0.024 (0.053)	−0.023 (0.053)	−0.081 (0.059)	−0.093 (0.059)	−0.090 (0.059)	−0.060 (0.047)	−0.057 (0.047)	−0.057 (0.047)
Primary caregiver (Ref: Parent)
Grandparent	0.010 (0.040)	0.026 (0.042)	0.040 (0.042)	0.024 (0.046)	0.028 (0.047)	0.026 (0.049)	0.091^* (0.047)	0.100^** (0.048)	0.091^* (0.049)	0.056 (0.047)	0.045 (0.049)	0.031 (0.049)
Other relative	0.114^** (0.049)	0.137^** (0.056)	0.143^** (0.057)	0.071 (0.062)	0.073 (0.067)	0.071 (0.071)	0.090^* (0.050)	0.103^* (0.056)	0.097 (0.060)	0.048 (0.048)	0.034 (0.052)	0.023 (0.055)
Age		−0.018 (0.013)	−0.020 (0.013)		0.016 (0.014)	0.012 (0.014)		−0.003 (0.016)	−0.008 (0.016)		−0.025 (0.016)	−0.026 (0.016)
Female		−0.125^*** (0.036)	−0.118^*** (0.037)		−0.115^** (0.052)	−0.116^** (0.053)		−0.136^*** (0.045)	−0.131^*** (0.046)		−0.048 (0.045)	−0.046 (0.045)
Years living in the households		0.004 (0.004)	0.004 (0.004)		−0.000 (0.004)	−0.001 (0.004)		0.002 (0.004)	0.002 (0.004)		−0.005 (0.004)	−0.006 (0.004)
Household size			−0.024^*** (0.009)			0.001 (0.014)			0.017 (0.014)			0.020 (0.014)
Number of children			0.037^*** (0.013)			0.014 (0.015)			−0.007 (0.018)			−0.015 (0.015)
Caregiver: employed			−0.098^** (0.046)			−0.054 (0.053)			−0.098^* (0.054)			−0.021 (0.048)
Constant	−0.069 (0.045)	0.195 (0.172)	0.276 (0.173)	−0.078 (0.048)	−0.221 (0.194)	−0.198 (0.183)	−0.133^** (0.057)	−0.040 (0.234)	−0.036 (0.227)	−0.209^*** (0.035)	0.180 (0.203)	0.128 (0.211)
N	1227	1225	1221	1112	1111	1107	1118	1115	1111	1169	1166	1162
Bridges =BridgesPlus (p-value)	0.580	0.580	0.723	0.111	0.079	0.048	0.490	0.511	0.430	0.054	0.069	0.065
Bridges = BridgesPlus = 0 (p-value)	0.022	0.029	0.010	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.005	0.005	0.002	0.006	0.009	0.012
Panel 2: C vector
Bridges	−0.048^*** (0.013)	−0.047^*** (0.014)	−0.047^*** (0.012)	−0.041^*** (0.011)	−0.038^*** (0.010)	−0.037^*** (0.010)	−0.054^*** (0.014)	−0.052^*** (0.014)	−0.051^*** (0.013)	−0.009 (0.011)	−0.010 (0.011)	−0.010 (0.011)
Bridges PLUS	−0.033^** (0.013)	−0.033^** (0.013)	−0.036^*** (0.012)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.060^*** (0.014)	−0.059^*** (0.014)	−0.060^*** (0.014)	−0.027^** (0.011)	−0.027^** (0.011)	−0.026^** (0.011)
Double orphan	−0.001 (0.009)	−0.004 (0.009)	−0.003 (0.010)	0.009 (0.011)	0.004 (0.010)	0.004 (0.010)	−0.013 (0.014)	−0.016 (0.014)	−0.016 (0.014)	−0.005 (0.013)	−0.005 (0.013)	−0.005 (0.013)
Primary caregiver (Ref: Parent)
Grandparent	0.003 (0.011)	0.006 (0.011)	0.008 (0.011)	0.004 (0.012)	0.006 (0.012)	0.006 (0.012)	0.022^* (0.012)	0.023^* (0.012)	0.021 (0.013)	0.009 (0.013)	0.006 (0.014)	0.003 (0.014)
Other relative	0.024^** (0.012)	0.028^** (0.013)	0.028^** (0.013)	0.016 (0.013)	0.019 (0.014)	0.017 (0.014)	0.023^* (0.013)	0.023 (0.015)	0.021 (0.015)	0.012 (0.012)	0.010 (0.013)	0.006 (0.014)
Age		0.002 (0.003)	0.002 (0.003)		0.008^** (0.003)	0.008^** (0.004)		0.006^* (0.003)	0.006^* (0.003)		−0.006 (0.004)	−0.006 (0.004)
Female		−0.021^** (0.009)	−0.018^** (0.009)		−0.029^*** (0.011)	−0.030^*** (0.011)		−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.031^*** (0.011)		−0.016 (0.011)	−0.016 (0.011)
Years living in the households		0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.001)	−0.001 (0.001)
Household size			−0.004^** (0.002)			0.000 (0.003)			0.002 (0.003)			0.004 (0.003)
Number of children			0.007^*** (0.003)			0.003 (0.004)			0.002 (0.004)			−0.002 (0.004)
Caregiver: employed			−0.025^** (0.011)			−0.002 (0.010)			−0.018 (0.011)			−0.000 (0.012)
Constant	−0.020 (0.013)	−0.041 (0.039)	−0.026 (0.040)	−0.026^*** (0.009)	−0.117^*** (0.043)	−0.122^*** (0.042)	−0.034^*** (0.012)	−0.098^** (0.047)	−0.105^** (0.046)	−0.065^*** (0.010)	0.025 (0.051)	0.005 (0.052)
Bridges = BridgesPlus = 0 (p-value)	0.022	0.029	0.010	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.005	0.005	0.002	0.006	0.009	0.012
Panel 2: C vector
Bridges	−0.048^*** (0.013)	−0.047^*** (0.014)	−0.047^*** (0.012)	−0.041^*** (0.011)	−0.038^*** (0.010)	−0.037^*** (0.010)	−0.054^*** (0.014)	−0.052^*** (0.014)	−0.051^*** (0.013)	−0.009 (0.011)	−0.010 (0.011)	−0.010 (0.011)
Bridges PLUS	−0.033^** (0.013)	−0.033^** (0.013)	−0.036^*** (0.012)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.054^*** (0.011)	−0.060^*** (0.014)	−0.059^*** (0.014)	−0.060^*** (0.014)	−0.027^** (0.011)	−0.027^** (0.011)	−0.026^** (0.011)
Double orphan	−0.001 (0.009)	−0.004 (0.009)	−0.003 (0.010)	0.009 (0.011)	0.004 (0.010)	0.004 (0.010)	−0.013 (0.014)	−0.016 (0.014)	−0.016 (0.014)	−0.005 (0.013)	−0.005 (0.013)	−0.005 (0.013)
Primary caregiver (Ref: Parent)
Grandparent	0.003 (0.011)	0.006 (0.011)	0.008 (0.011)	0.004 (0.012)	0.006 (0.012)	0.006 (0.012)	0.022^* (0.012)	0.023^* (0.012)	0.021 (0.013)	0.009 (0.013)	0.006 (0.014)	0.003 (0.014)
Other relative	0.024^** (0.012)	0.028^** (0.013)	0.028^** (0.013)	0.016 (0.013)	0.019 (0.014)	0.017 (0.014)	0.023^* (0.013)	0.023 (0.015)	0.021 (0.015)	0.012 (0.012)	0.010 (0.013)	0.006 (0.014)
Age		0.002 (0.003)	0.002 (0.003)		0.008^** (0.003)	0.008^** (0.004)		0.006^* (0.003)	0.006^* (0.003)		−0.006 (0.004)	−0.006 (0.004)
Female		−0.021^** (0.009)	−0.018^** (0.009)		−0.029^*** (0.011)	−0.030^*** (0.011)		−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.031^*** (0.011)		−0.016 (0.011)	−0.016 (0.011)
Years living in the households		0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.001)	−0.001 (0.001)
Household size			−0.004^** (0.002)			0.000 (0.003)			0.002 (0.003)			0.004 (0.003)
Number of children			0.007^*** (0.003)			0.003 (0.004)			0.002 (0.004)			−0.002 (0.004)
Caregiver: employed			−0.025^** (0.011)			−0.002 (0.010)			−0.018 (0.011)			−0.000 (0.012)
Constant	−0.020 (0.013)	−0.041 (0.039)	−0.026 (0.040)	−0.026^*** (0.009)	−0.117^*** (0.043)	−0.122^*** (0.042)	−0.034^*** (0.012)	−0.098^** (0.047)	−0.105^** (0.046)	−0.065^*** (0.010)	0.025 (0.051)	0.005 (0.052)
N	1227	1225	1221	1112	1111	1107	1118	1115	1111	1169	1166	1162
Bridges = BridgesPlus (p-value)	0.174	0.205	0.293	0.274	0.160	0.124	0.617	0.555	0.433	0.121	0.142	0.149
Bridges = BridgesPlus = 0 (p-value)	0.003	0.005	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.059	0.075	0.078

School-level cluster robust standard errors in parentheses

⁺

p < 0.10;

p < 0.05;

^**

p < 0.01;

^***

p < 0.001

MPI poor = H: Headcount ratio or incidence of multidimensional poverty (MPI); C vector = C vector is a simultaneous deprivation score for each child. It is derived through summing deprivation status of each indicator multiplied by weight (1/12), which is a weighted sum of overlapping deprivations. All models cluster the robust errors at the school level to adjust for intra-school correlations