Table 3.

Research for antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus.

Effects	Randomized controlled trials	Observational studies	Systematic reviews
Decrease of disease severity		Prospective study, 25 patients 95 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 256 patients 84 Cross-sectional study, 57 patients 96 Longitudinal study, LUMINA cohort, 35 patients 85 Prospective study, 41 SLE patients 97 Observational study, 28 SLE pregnant women 98 Retrospective study, 165 SLE patients 99 Retrospective study, 101 SLE patients 100 Prospective Hopkins Lupus Cohort, 916 patients 101	Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Prevent of disease flare	RCT, NCT03122431: 73 stable LN patients 73 RCT, NCT00413361: 573 patients 72 RCT, 24 SLE patients stable disease 14 RCT, 47 clinically stable SLE patients 66 RCT, 20 patients lupus pregnancy 71	Retrospective, matched with themselves, 43/209 patients 102 Retrospective, matched with themselves, 43 patients, 76 matched years 103 Prospective, Padua Lupus Cohort, 319 SLE patients 104 Retrospective study, 101 SLE patients 100 Prospective, Hopkins Lupus Cohort, 2512 patients 78 Longitudinal, 143 SLE patients 105	Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Cutaneous lupus	RCT, NCT01551069: 103 patients Cutaneous Lupus 75 RCT, 20 patients lupus pregnancy 71	Retrospective, matched with themselves, 43/209 patients 102 Prospective, 17/27 patients SLE 106 Prospective, 300 patients subacute or chronic CLE 107 Retrospective cohort, 200 patients DLE 108 Cross-sectional study, 1002 patients CLE 109 Prospective cohort, 218 CLE and SLE patients 110 Retrospective, 36 LE tumidus 111 Retrospective, 61 DLE and SCLE patients 112 Prospective, 34 CLE patients 113	Databases: Medline, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane 114
Adjuvant for lupus nephritis remission		Prospective, Hopkins Lupus Cohort, 29 patients 79 Retrospective study, 35 patients 115 Retrospective study, 206 patients lupus nephritis 116 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 256 patients 84 Retrospective study, 90 patients with lupus nephritis 117	Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Improvement of articular complaints	RCT, 71 SLE patients mild SLE 68 RCT, 24 SLE patients stable disease 14		Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Decrease disease activity/prevent flare during pregnancy	RCT, 20 patients lupus pregnancy 71	Prospective study, 60 patients – 103 pregnancies 118 Prospective, Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Cohort, 282 (163 + 56 + 68) pregnancies 80 Retrospective study, 176 patients – 396 pregnancies 119 Retrospective study, 179 pregnancies 120	Databases: Medline and Embase 3 Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Protection against preeclampsia		Retrospective cohort, 151 pregnancies 121 Prospective cohort, 316 pregnancies 122 114 HCQ-exposed pregnancies 123
Prevention of fetal growth restriction and prematurity		Observational study, 28 SLE pregnant women 98
Reducing antiphospholipid antibodies persistence		Retrospective study, 90 patients – 17 patients with persistent LA 124
Reduce the risk of thrombosis		Prospective cohort, 92 patients 125 Retrospective study, 272 patients 126 Prospective cohort, 232 patients 127 Prospective cohort, 67 SLE-aPL patients 128 Retrospective study, 206 patients lupus nephritis 116 Longitudinal, cross-sectional, 144 patients 129 Prospective, Tromso Lupus cohort, 158 patients 130 Retrospective study, 1930 patients 131 Nested case–control study, 54 SLE cases versus 108 controls 132 Prospective Hopkins Cohort, 1795 SLE patients, 193 thrombotic events, 10,508 person-years 133 Prospective study, 189 SLE patients 134 Prospective Hopkins Cohort, 739 patients 135	Databases: Medline and Embase 3 Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Lower fasting glucose/diabetes mellitus protection		Cross-sectional study, 149 SLE patients 136 Population-based cohort study, 221 with diabetes mellitus out of 8628 SLE patients 137
Improving lipidic profile	RCT, 72 SLE patients 69 RCT, 17/19 SLE female patients 70	Cross-sectional, 155 patients (SLE + AR) 138 Case-control, 18 SLE patients 139 Longitudinal Cohort – John Hopkins, 264 patients 81 Retrospective study, 382 patients 140 Cross-sectional study, 123 patients 141 Cross-sectional study, 90 subjects – 60 SLE patients 142 Cross-sectional study, 86 patients 143 Prospective study, 30 subjects – 20 SLE patients 144 Cross-sectional study, 185 outpatients 145 Prospective – Toronto Lupus Cohort – 1260 patients 90 Case-control, 100 lupus nephritis patients 146 Cross-sectional study, 24 patients 147 Prospective Hopkins Cohort, 51 patients, over 229 visits 82 Cross-sectional study, 48 patients 148	Databases: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane 149 Databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Medline/Ovid, Google Scholar, CINAHL, Cochrane 150 Databases: Medline and Embase 3 Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Reduction of atherosclerosis		Pittsburgh Lupus Registry, 220 women 151 Prospective study, 41 SLE patients and 96 controls 152	Databases: Medline and Embase 153
Decrease the risk of infections		Retrospective study, 206 patients lupus nephritis 116 A nested case–control study, Lupus-Cruces cohort, 83/166 patients 154 Prospective cohort, Northern California, 3030 patients 155 Retrospective study, Spanish Rheumatology Society Lupus Registry (RELESSER), 3658 patients 156 Case–control study, 65 SLE patients versus 130 controls 157 Prospective RELES Cohort, 282 SLE patients 158 Retrospective study, 339 patients 159 Inception cohort study GLADEL, 1243 patients 92 Population-based study, 24343 SLE patients 160	Databases: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane 161
Improvement of bone mineral density		Prospective study, 92 patients 162 Prospective study, 34 SLE patients 163	Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Protection against osteonecrosis		Nested matched case–control study, LUMINA cohort 86	Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Decrease the corticosteroids need	RCT, 20 patients lupus pregnancy 71	Retrospective, matched with themselves, 43 patients, 76 matched years 103 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 256 patients 84 Prospective study, 257 pregnancies 80
Protection against accrual damage		Prospective Israeli Cohort, 151 patients 164 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 632 patients 88 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 256 lupus nephritis 84 Prospective LUMINA Cohort, 580 patients 89 Prospective Hopkins Cohort, 2054 patients 83 Nested case-control, Inception cohort – Toronto Lupus Cohort, 685 patients: 174/307 patients 3 SLICC Inception Cohort Study, 1722 patients 165 Retrospective inception cohort, 476 subjects, 26 years 166 Early Lupus Project, Prospective Inception Cohort, 230 patients 167	Databases: Medline and Embase 3
Protection against neoplasia		Prospective cohort, 235 patients 168
Reducing SLE-related hospitalization		Retrospective study, 339 patients 159 Retrospective study, 526 patients 169 Retrospective registry-based, 40,381 patients 170
Improvement of survival		Case-control, 76 matched pairs 171 Prospective cohort, 232 patients 127 Case-control study – LUMINA L cohort, 608 patients 87 Retrospective study, 206 patients lupus nephritis 116 Prospective University of Toronto Lupus Clinic, 1241 patients 91 Prospective GLADEL cohort, 1480 patients 93 Retrospective, 1956 SLE inpatients 172 Retrospective, 42 patients lupus nephritis 173 Retrospective study, 491 patients with lupus nephritis 174 Prospective cohort, 803 SLE patients 175 Longitudinal cohort, 345 lupus nephritis patients 176 Prospective cohort, 914 SLE patients 177 Retrospective study, 6241 patients 178	Databases: Medline and Embase 3 Databases: Medline and Embase 13
Delays the evolution to SLE		Retrospective study, 130 military personal 179 Nested case–control study, GLADEL cohort, 265/530 patients 94	Databases: Medline and Embase 13

CC, case-control; CLE, cutaneous lupus erythematosus; CS, cross-sectional; DLE, discoid lupus erythematosus; DS, descriptive studies; GLADEL, Grupo Latino Americano de Estudio del Lupus; HCQ, hydroxychloroquine; LAC, lupus anticoagulant; LN, lupus nephritis; LUMINA, Lupus in Minorities: Nature vs Nurture; PC, prospective cohort; RA, retrospective analysis; RC, retrospective cohort; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SCLE, subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus; SLICC, Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics.