Table 3.
Estimates of Models III and IV on the probability of reporting to be sadder/more depressed during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic than before the outbreak: Average Marginal Effects (AMEs) and their confidence intervals (CI) at the 95% level in multiple imputed dataset.
| Variable | Model III |
Model IV |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Males (15,538 units) |
Females (21,937 units) |
All respondents (37,475 units) |
||||
| AME | CI 95% | AME | CI 95% | AME | CI 95% | |
| Age (at 2020) | ||||||
| <60 | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| 60–64 | −0.006 | [-0.030 0.017] | −0.005 | [-0.027 0.017] | −0.005 | [-0.021 0.010] |
| 65–69 | −0.016 | [-0.043 0.011] | −0.014 | [-0.039 0.011] | −0.015 | [-0.034 0.003] |
| 70–74 | −0.013 | [-0.040 0.015] | −0.010 | [-0.037 0.017] | −0.012 | [-0.032 0.008] |
| 75–79 | −0.022 | [-0.050 0.007] | −0.020 | [-0.048 0.009] | −0.021 | [-0.042–0.001] |
| 80–84 | 0.010 | [-0.020 0.041] | −0.012 | [-0.042 0.018] | −0.003 | [-0.025 0.019] |
| >84 | −0.014 | [-0.046 0.018] | −0.041 | [-0.072–0.009] | −0.030 | [-0.053–0.008] |
| Education | ||||||
| Low | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| Middle | −0.015 | [-0.028–0.002] | −0.010 | [-0.024 0.004] | −0.012 | [-0.022–0.002] |
| High | −0.015 | [-0.028–0.001] | −0.011 | [-0.026 0.005] | −0.013 | [-0.023–0.002] |
| Depression categories (at 2015) | ||||||
| Very low risk of depression | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| Low risk of depression | 0.029 | [-0.001 0.059] | 0.054 | [ 0.013 0.095] | 0.043 | [ 0.016 0.069] |
| Middle risk of depression | 0.046 | [ 0.030 0.061] | 0.070 | [ 0.056 0.084] | 0.060 | [ 0.050 0.070] |
| High risk of depression | 0.039 | [ 0.028 0.051] | 0.085 | [ 0.072 0.097] | 0.067 | [ 0.058 0.075] |
| Depressed | 0.064 | [ 0.029 0.100] | 0.108 | [ 0.073 0.143] | 0.091 | [ 0.065 0.116] |
| Severely depressed | 0.142 | [ 0.096 0.188] | 0.161 | [ 0.127 0.194] | 0.147 | [ 0.121 0.173] |
| Extremely depressed | 0.086 | [ 0.000 0.171] | 0.161 | [ 0.091 0.232] | 0.129 | [ 0.075 0.183] |
| Become widow/er (within 2 years before the outbreak) | 0.012 | [-0.030 0.054] | 0.012 | [-0.021 0.044] | 0.013 | [-0.013 0.039] |
| Retired (within 2 years before the outbreak) | 0.003 | [-0.032 0.038] | 0.011 | [-0.023 0.044] | 0.007 | [-0.019 0.033] |
| Had heart attack/stroke (within 2 years before the outbreak) | 0.015 | [-0.010 0.041] | −0.008 | [-0.054 0.038] | 0.007 | [-0.020 0.035] |
| Diagnosed a cancer (within 2 years before the outbreak) | 0.004 | [-0.029 0.038] | 0.025 | [-0.017 0.067] | 0.016 | [-0.011 0.042] |
| Ever diagnosed chronic lung disease | 0.005 | [-0.014 0.025] | 0.006 | [-0.014 0.027] | 0.007 | [-0.008 0.022] |
| Ever diagnosed diabetes | −0.004 | [-0.015 0.008] | −0.002 | [-0.016 0.013] | −0.003 | [-0.013 0.007] |
| Ever diagnosed hypertension |
−0.002 |
[-0.013 0.009] |
0.009 |
[-0.003 0.021] |
0.004 |
[-0.004 0.012] |
| Variable | Model III | Model IV | ||||
| Males (15,538 units) | Females (21,937 units) | All respondents (37,475 units) | ||||
| AME |
CI 95% |
AME |
CI 95% |
AME |
CI 95% |
|
| Ever diagnosed cholesterol | −0.007 | [-0.019 0.006] | −0.001 | [-0.018 0.015] | −0.003 | [-0.013 0.006] |
| Ever diagnosed Alzheimer's disease | −0.018 | [-0.056 0.019] | −0.029 | [-0.064 0.005] | −0.026 | [-0.044–0.007] |
| Ever diagnosed other affective diseases | 0.039 | [ 0.016 0.061] | 0.049 | [ 0.031 0.067] | 0.045 | [ 0.031 0.059] |
| Ever diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis | −0.005 | [-0.021 0.011] | 0.008 | [-0.008 0.024] | 0.002 | [-0.009 0.013] |
| Ever diagnosed osteoarthritis | 0.020 | [ 0.005 0.035] | 0.013 | [ 0.000 0.026] | 0.014 | [ 0.005 0.024] |
| At least one ADL limitation | −0.003 | [-0.024 0.018] | 0.003 | [-0.016 0.022] | 0.001 | [-0.015 0.016] |
| At least one IADL limitation | 0.025 | [ 0.007 0.043] | 0.015 | [-0.013 0.043] | 0.018 | [-0.001 0.037] |
| Body Mass Index | ||||||
| Normal weight/underweighted | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| Being overweighted | −0.005 | [-0.017 0.007] | −0.003 | [-0.018 0.011] | −0.005 | [-0.015 0.005] |
| Being obese | 0.002 | [-0.013 0.016] | −0.016 | [-0.031–0.002] | −0.011 | [-0.021–0.001] |
| Fluency test score (cognitive abilities) | −0.001 | [-0.001 0.001] | −0.001 | [-0.002 0.000] | −0.001 | [-0.002 0.000] |
| Household size | −0.005 | [-0.011 0.002] | −0.013 | [-0.021–0.006] | −0.010 | [-0.015–0.005] |
| Living with a partner | −0.009 | [-0.024 0.007] | 0.008 | [-0.006 0.022] | 0.004 | [-0.005 0.014] |
| Number of living children | ||||||
| None | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| One | 0.017 | [-0.006 0.039] | 0.020 | [-0.001 0.042] | 0.018 | [ 0.003 0.034] |
| More than one | 0.012 | [-0.007 0.031] | 0.011 | [-0.007 0.030] | 0.011 | [-0.003 0.024] |
| Job status | ||||||
| Employee | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| Self-employed | 0.012 | [-0.022 0.046] | −0.038 | [-0.095 0.019] | −0.012 | [-0.046 0.022] |
| Retired | 0.017 | [-0.008 0.042] | 0.003 | [-0.025 0.031] | 0.009 | [-0.012 0.031] |
| Other (unemployed, permanently sick, …) | 0.025 | [-0.006 0.057] | 0.004 | [-0.027 0.035] | 0.011 | [-0.011 0.033] |
| Homemaker | 0.026 | [-0.086 0.137] | 0.007 | [-0.027 0.040] | 0.010 | [-0.016 0.035] |
| House ownership | ||||||
| Owner/Member of a cooperative | ref. | ref. | ref. | |||
| Tenant/Subtenant | 0.020 | [-0.002 0.041] | 0.025 | [ 0.007 0.044] | 0.023 | [ 0.008 0.039] |
| Rent free |
0.006 |
[-0.017 0.029] |
0.013 |
[-0.012 0.037] |
0.010 |
[-0.007 0.027] |
| Variable | Model V | Model IV | ||||
| Males (15,538 units) | Females (21,937 units) | All respondents (37,475 units) | ||||
| AME |
CI 95% |
AME |
CI 95% |
AME |
CI 95% |
|
| Anyone in the hh tested positive for COVID-19 | 0.004 | [-0.016 0.023] | 0.004 | [-0.017 0.025] | 0.004 | [-0.010 0.019] |
| Anyone in the hhtested negative for COVID-19 | 0.030 | [ 0.016 0.044] | 0.044 | [ 0.030 0.058] | 0.038 | [ 0.028 0.048] |
| Anyone in the hh hospitalised due to infection | 0.026 | [-0.003 0.054] | 0.009 | [-0.021 0.040] | 0.016 | [-0.005 0.037] |
| Anyone in the hh died because infection | 0.028 | [-0.001 0.057] | 0.035 | [ 0.001 0.069] | 0.033 | [ 0.010 0.056] |
| Never/rarely personal contacts | 0.022 | [ 0.011 0.033] | 0.028 | [ 0.016 0.040] | 0.026 | [ 0.017 0.035] |
| Never/rarely electronic contacts | −0.006 | [-0.024 0.012] | −0.077 | [-0.100–0.054] | −0.039 | [-0.054–0.023] |
| Helped others outside home | 0.004 | [-0.011 0.019] | 0.016 | [ 0.001 0.032] | 0.011 | [ 0.000 0.022] |
| Were helped by others outside home | 0.047 | [ 0.033 0.060] | 0.070 | [ 0.057 0.083] | 0.060 | [ 0.051 0.070] |
| Received additional financial support | 0.013 | [-0.009 0.034] | 0.025 | [ 0.001 0.048] | 0.019 | [ 0.002 0.035] |
| Become unemployed/were laid off | 0.062 | [ 0.030 0.095] | 0.022 | [-0.008 0.052] | 0.038 | [ 0.016 0.060] |
| Never left home since outbreak | 0.002 | [-0.011 0.016] | −0.003 | [-0.017 0.011] | −0.001 | [-0.011 0.009] |
| Diagnosed major illness since wave8 | 0.085 | [ 0.066 0.104] | 0.084 | [ 0.065 0.103] | 0.085 | [ 0.071 0.098] |
| Being female | – | – | 0.064 | [ 0.056 0.072] | ||
Notes: Model III includes all individual characteristics and is estimated separately by gender.
Model IV runs for the whole sample (men and women) and includes all individual characteristics plus a gender dummy.
ADL = Activity of Daily Living; IADL = Instrumental Activity of Daily Living; hh = household.