Figure 2.

Exosomes, α-synuclein (α-syn), and glial cells involved in the mechanisms underlying neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease.

The activation of microglia induced by α-syn can cause oxidative stress and a variety of pro-inflammatory changes that activate peripheral immune cells. Glial-derived exosomes containing inflammatory molecules can communicate with neurons and ultimately cause neurotoxicity. Increased neuronal death further activates the inflammatory mechanism, leading to a vicious cycle of inflammation and neuronal death. BBB: Blood-brain barrier.