Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies (N=114).
| Domain and feature | Values, n (%) | |
| Study design | ||
|
|
Randomized controlled trial | 47 (41.2) |
|
|
Experimental (eg, cross-over and before-and-after studies) | 49 (42.9) |
|
|
Cross-sectional studies | 14 (12.3) |
|
|
Cases studies and case series | 3 (2.6) |
|
|
Meta-analysis | 1 (1.1) |
| Location (by country) | ||
|
|
United States | 30 (26.3) |
|
|
Germany | 11 (9.6) |
|
|
United Kingdom | 11 (9.6) |
|
|
Canada | 9 (7.9) |
|
|
Denmark | 9 (7.9) |
|
|
Others | 44 (38.6) |
| Number of students | ||
|
|
0-50 | 76 (66.7) |
|
|
51-100 | 20 (17.5) |
|
|
>100 | 18 (15.8) |
| Year of study of studentsa | ||
|
|
1 | 31 (27.2) |
|
|
2 | 29 (25.4) |
|
|
3 | 26 (22.8) |
|
|
4 | 23 (20.2) |
|
|
5 | 19 (16.7) |
|
|
6 | 19 (16.7) |
| Study setting | ||
|
|
University | 108 (94.7) |
|
|
Hospital | 6 (5.3) |
| VRb modalities used | ||
|
|
Surgical VR simulator | 69 (60.5) |
|
|
3D anatomical model | 14 (12.2) |
|
|
Virtual dissection table | 4 (3.5) |
|
|
Virtual worlds | 21 (18.4) |
|
|
Mobile VR | 4 (3.5) |
|
|
Others | 2 (1.8) |
| Mode of access | ||
|
|
Commercial product | 84 (73.6) |
|
|
Developed in-house | 30 (26.3) |
|
|
Both commercial and in-house elements | 5 (4.4) |
| Input devices | ||
|
|
Haptic tools | 71 (62.2) |
|
|
Mouse | 21 (18.4) |
|
|
Touch screen | 8 (7.4) |
|
|
Game controllers | 5 (4.4) |
|
|
Joysticks | 2 (1.8) |
|
|
VR gloves | 2 (1.8) |
|
|
Headset | 4 (3.5) |
|
|
Stereoscopic glasses | 1 (0.9) |
| Delivery devices | ||
|
|
Screen | 100 (87.7) |
|
|
Headset | 13 (11.4) |
|
|
3D projector with stereoscopic glasses | 1 (0.9) |
| Extent of immersion | ||
|
|
Fully immersive | 20 (17.5) |
|
|
Semi-immersive | 68 (59.6) |
|
|
Nonimmersive | 26 (22.8) |
| Extent of interactivity | ||
|
|
High | 79 (69.3) |
|
|
Moderate | 19 (16.7) |
|
|
Low | 16 (14) |
| Subject taughta | ||
|
|
Surgical psychomotor skills | 71 (61.4) |
|
|
Anatomy | 21 (18.4) |
|
|
Clinical managementc | 16 (14) |
|
|
Radiology | 4 (3.5) |
|
|
Nonsurgical psychomotor skills | 3 (2.6) |
|
|
Communication | 3 (2.6) |
| Mode of teaching | ||
|
|
Self-directed | 71 (62.3) |
|
|
Guided | 42 (36.8) |
|
|
Not availabled | 1 (0.9) |
| Duration of teaching | ||
|
|
<1 day | 35 (30.7) |
|
|
1 day to 1 month | 28 (24.6) |
|
|
1-6 months | 16 (14) |
|
|
6-12 months | 8 (7) |
|
|
>1 year | 4 (3.5) |
|
|
Not specified | 23 (20.1) |
| Timing of assessment | ||
|
|
Immediate | 96 (84.2) |
|
|
Delayed | 17 (14.9) |
|
|
Not availabled | 1 (0.9) |
| Individual or group deliverya | ||
|
|
Individual | 97 (85.1) |
|
|
Individual and group | 7 (6.1) |
|
|
Group | 9 (7.9) |
|
|
Not availabled | 1 (0.9) |
aPercentages do not add up to 100% because of overlap among the included studies.
bVR: virtual reality.
cExamples include cardiopulmonary resuscitation, pediatric respiratory management, clinical presentation, and trauma management.
dThe systematic review did not investigate any mode of teaching.