Fig. 4.

Variation along the land-use trajectory for multidiversity (A), endemic multidiversity (B), and ES-multifunctionality (C) and their trade-off with agricultural productivity (D) in northeastern Madagascar. Losses of multidiversity (A), and to a greater extent endemic multidiversity (B), happen after old-growth forest conversion. Changes at later transitions within the land-use trajectory (leverage points 2 and 3) are less strong. ES-multifunctionality (C) follows the same pattern. Trade-offs with agricultural productivity (D) become apparent as the most biodiverse and multifunctional land uses (old-growth forests and forest fragments) have no farming outcomes, while the most high-yielding land use (rice paddy) has the lowest value for biodiversity and services. Vanilla agroforests offer a compromise. Multidiversity (A and B) and ES-multifunctionality (C) are calculated as the proportion of taxa or services that reach 50% of the species richness or value of the five best-performing plots (50% threshold). Points colored according to the land-use type represent the mean value for each land-use type, while error bars are 95% CIs. The parallel coordinate plots (D) each depict one focal land-use type (color) in relation to the other six land-use types (gray). To enable comparison across variables, values are standardized so that zero represents the mean across all seven land-use types. Values at the 20% and 80% thresholds are displayed in SI Appendix, Fig. S2. Multidiversity and ES-multifunctionality are positively correlated (SI Appendix, Fig. S3).