Table 12.
Representative example of different capping agents and spectra of virus treated with silver nanoparticles:
| S.No | Type of virus | Family | Capping agent | Size (nm) | Concentration of AgNP | Time of study | Mode of action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Human immunodeficiency virus—1 | Retroviridae | Polyvinyl pyrrolidone | 30–50 | 0.44 mg/ml (± 0.3) | 48 h | Inhibition through impeding with gp120-CD4 interaction | [385] |
| 2 | Human Immunodeficiency Virus—1 | Retroviridae | Polyurethane | 30–60 | Ag-NPs-coated PUC (1 cm2) | 72 h | Direct transfer of silver ions from oxidized NPs to viral membrane proteins gp120 and gp41 | [406] |
| 3 | Herpes simplex virus—1 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) | Herpesviridae | 48 h | |||||
| 4 | Herpes simplex virus—1 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) | Herpesviridae | – | 4–23 | 10 mg/ml | 72 h | Irreversible inactivation of virions | [407] |
| 5 | Human parainfluenza virus (HPIV-3) | Paramyxoviridae | 5 mg/ml | 48 h | ||||
| 6 | H1N1 Influenza A virus | Orthomyxoviridae | Chitosan | 3.5–12.9 | 100 µg /mg of chitosan | 7 days | Spatial restriction of binding between virions and AgNP/Ch Matrix | [408] |
| 7 | Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus | Coronaviridae | Polyoxyethylene Glycerol Trioleate | 10–20 | 3.125–12.5 (µg/ml) | 48 h | Depolarization of host cell’s mitochondrial membrane protein and induction of apoptosis cascade | [409] |
| 8 | Tomato Bushy Stunt Virus | Tombusviridae | Graphene oxide | 30–50 | – | – | spatial distribution of the interacting ligand/receptor molecules between coat proteins of the virus and infected cell receptors | [393] |
| 9 | Respiratory Syncytial Virus | Pneumovirinae | Curcumin | 11–12 | 0.008, 0.015, 0.03, 0.06, 0.12 nM | – | Reduction of cytopathic effects and inactivation of RSV before its entry into the host cell | [410] |
| 10 | Feline coronavirus | Coronaviridae | Graphene oxide | 1–25 | 0.1 mg/ml | 96 h | Negatively charged GO adsorbs to the positively charged lipid membrane and disrupts its integrity | [411] |
| 11 | Infectious bursal disease virus | Birnaviridae | Graphene oxide | 1–0.125 mg/ml | 96 h | Conjugation between the sulfur group of viral protein and silver nanoparticle on GO surface | ||
| 12 | Severe acquired respiratory syndrome—Coronavirus 2 | Coronaviridae | Silicon dioxide | 65 | Approximately 50 ppm | 2–10 min | High oxidizing ROS production led damage to the virus | [412] |
| 13 | Feline calicivirus | Coronaviridae | Poly(tannic acid) | 10.61 ± 1.54 | 20 mm × 20 mm | 72 h | Direct binding of the silver nanoparticles to viral envelope glycoproteins, thereby inhibiting viral penetration into the host cell | [413] |
| 14 | Influenza virus | Orthomyxoviridae |