Table 1.
Examples of vaccine development against pathogenic infectious diseases based on negative strand self-replicating RNA virus vectors.
| Virus/disease | Antigen | Vector | Findings | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alphaviruses | ||||
| CHIKV/CHIK | Env | Chim-VSV-Env | Protection in mice | [27] |
| CHIKV/CHIK | C, Env | MV-CHIKV-VLPs | Protection in mice | [29] |
| CHIKV/CHIK | C, Env | MV-CHIKV-VLPs | Protection in macaques | [30] |
| CHIKV/CHIK | C, Env | MV-CHIKV-VLPs | Phase I: 100% seroconversion | [31] |
| CHIKV/CHIK | C, Env | MV-CHIK-VLPs | Phase II: safety, strong immunogenicity | [32] |
| EEE/EEE | EEE Env | VSV/rISFV-Env | Neutralizing Abs, protection in mice | [33] |
| VEE/VEE | VEE Env | VSV/rISFV-Env | Neutralizing Abs, protection in mice | [32] |
| Arenaviruses | ||||
| LASV/LHF | GPC | VSV-GPC | Protection in guinea pigs & macaques | [34] |
| LASV/LHF | GPC | VSV-GPC | Rapid, long-term protection in guinea pigs | [35] |
| LASV/LHF | GPC | VSV-GPC | 100% protection in non-human primates | [36] |
| LASV/LHF | GPC | RABV-LASV-GPC | Protection in mice and guinea pigs | [37] |
| LASV/LHF | GPC | MV-GPC/NP | Superior protection in macaques | [38] |
| LASV/LHF | GPC | MV-LASV-GPC | Phase I: Dose escalation study in progress | [39] |
| Filoviruses | ||||
| EBOV/EVD | GP | RABV-ZGP | nAbs in mice and dogs | [40] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP | VSV-GP | Partial/complete protection in macaques | [41] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP | VSV-GP | Protection in macaques after single dose | [42] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP (Zaire) | VSV-GP | Protection in mice | [43] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP (Zaire) | VSV-GP | Protection in cynomolgus monkeys | [44] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP (Zaire) | VSV-ZEBOV | Phase III: Vaccine efficacy, protection | [45] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP (Zaire) | VSV-ZEBOV | Phase III: Vaccine efficacy | [46] |
| EBOV/EVD | GP (Zaire) | VSV-ZEBOV | Ervebo approved by the FDA, the EMA | [47] |
| MARV/MVD | GP | VSV-MARV-GP | Protection in cynomolgus monkeys | [44] |
| Flaviviruses | ||||
| DENV/DF | ED3 | MV-ED3 | DENV-specific Abs, protection in mice | [48] |
| DENV/DF | prM, E | VSV-prME | Protection against DENV-2 in mice | [49] |
| ZIKV/ZVD | prME | Chim-VSV-prME | Protection against ZIKV in mice | [27] |
| ZIKV/ZVD | prME | RABV-ZIKV-prME | Protective titers against ZIKV & RABV | [50] |
| ZIKV/ZVD | E-NS1 | MV-E-NS1 | Protection, viral clearance in mice | [51] |
| ZIKV/ZVD | E | MV-ZIKA-E | Phase I: Study completed, no results | [52] |
| ZIKV/ZVD | E | MV-ZIKA-E-RSP | Phase I: Study in progress | [53] |
| Hepatotropic viruses | ||||
| HBV/Hepatitis | HBsAg | MV-HBsAg | Protection in 50% of rhesus macaques | [54] |
| HBV/Hepatitis | HBV-MS | VSV-MS | Single immunization provided protection | [55] |
| Lentiviruses | ||||
| HIV/AIDS | HIV Env | MV-HIV-Env | Immune responses in mice and macaques | [56] |
| HIV/AIDS | HIV Gag | MV-HIV Gag | Protective immunity in transgenic mice | [57] |
| HIV/AIDS | Env + Gag | VSV-HIV + SIV | Protection against AIDS in macaques | [59] |
| HIV/AIDS | HIV Env | VSV-HIV/SIV | HIV gp140 specific Abs in mice | [60] |
| HIV/AIDS | HIV gp160 | RABV-gp160 | Neutralizing HIV-1 Abs with gp120 boost | [61] |
| Influenza virus | ||||
| HPAIV/Influenza | HA | MV-HPAIV HA | Protection in cynomolgus monkeys | [62] |
| IFA/Influenza | HA | MV-AIK-C-HA | Protection in cotton rats | [63] |
| HPAIV/Influenza | HA | VSV*DeltaG(HA) | Protection in chickens | [64] |
| IFA/Influenza | HA, NA | VSV-HA/NA | Protection, immunized 24 h post-challenge | [65] |
| HPAIV-IFA/Influenza | HA, NA | VSV-ΔG-HA/NA | Protection in mice | [66] |
| IFA/Influenza | HAfl | VSV-HAfl | Protection against H5 Clade 2 IFAs | [67] |
| Coronaviruses | ||||
| SARS-CoV | S, N | MV-SARS-CoV-S/N | High titer Ab responses | [73] |
| SARS-CoV | S | MV-SARS-CoV-S | Protection in mice | [74] |
| SARS-CoV | S | VSV-SARS-CoV-S | Protection in mice | [65] |
| SARS-CoV | S | VSVΔG-SARS-S | Superior Ab levels, protection in mice | [76] |
| MERS-CoV/MERS | S, N | MV-MERS-S/solS | nAbs, protection in mice | [77] |
| MERS-CoV/MERS | S | MV-MERS-S/N | nAbs in S-immunized mice, not N | [78] |
| MERS-CoV/MERS | S | VSVΔG-S | Th1-biased Ab response in primates | [79] |
| MERS-CoV/MERS | S1 | RABV-MERS-CoV S1 | Protection against MERS-CoV | [80] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | MV-SARS-CoV-2-S | Th1-biased and T cell Abs in mice | [81] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | MV (TMV-083) | Phase I: Weak response, trial terminated | [82, 83] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S1 | RABV-SARS-CoV-2 S1 | Virus-neutralizing Abs in mice | [84] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | VSVΔG-S | nAbs, protection in mice | [85] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | VSVΔG-S | Protection against COVID pathogenesis | [86] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S, S1, RBD | mtdVSV-S | Protection in Syrian golden hamsters | [87] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | VSV (V590) | Phase I: Weak response, trial discontinued | [88, 89] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | VSVΔG-S | Phase I/II: Study in progress | [90] |
| SARS-CoV-2/COVID | S | VSVΔG-S | Phase II/III: Study planned | [91] |
Abs antibodies, C capsid, CHIK Chikungunya fever, CHIKV Chikungunya virus, CoV coronavirus, COVID Coronavirus disease-19, DENV Dengue virus, DF Dengue fever, EBOV Ebola virus, ED3 envelope protein domain III, EEE Eastern equine encephalitis virus, EVD Ebola virus disease, Env envelope, GPC glycoprotein complex, HA hemagglutinin, HAfl full-length hemagglutinin, HBsAg hepatitis B surface antigen, HBV hepatitis B virus, HPAIV high pathogenic avian influenza virus, IFA influenza virus, LASV Lassa virus, LHV Lassa hemorrhagic fever, MERS Middle East respiratory syndrome, MS Middle envelope surface protein, mtdVSV methyltransferase-defective VSV, MV measles virus, N nucleocapsid, NA neuraminidase, nAbs neutralizing antibodies, prME pre-membrane-envelope proteins, RBD receptor binding domain, rISFV recombinant isfahan virus, S spike protein, SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome, VEE Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, VLPs virus-like particles, VSV vesicular stomatitis virus, ZIKV Zika virus, ZVD Zika virus disease.