Fig. 1. Sex biases in survival during temperature and pesticide stress challenges.

Drones and workers (all five days old at the beginning of the experiment) from three different colony sources were paint marked and kept in California-style queen shipping cages with candy (one subject with five other companion workers in each cage). Statistical differences were evaluated using a generalized linear model on survival count data with a binomial distribution. Sample sizes for each group are indicated in the figure. Baseline survival rates are indicated by the negative control group (2 µl topical acetone treatment for ‘cocktail’ and ‘imidacloprid’ groups, and room temperature incubation for the ‘cold’ group) after two days. a Survival of drones and workers two days after exposure to different durations of cold stress (4 °C), b topical exposure to different concentrations of imidacloprid, and c topical exposure to different concentrations of a pesticide cocktail of compounds commonly found in wax (see McAfee et al.²⁹ for the recipe, and Traynor et al.²⁴ for the supporting data). See Supplementary Data 1 for underlying data.