TABLE 1.
Summary of the effects of inside‐to‐outside signals on adipose tissue
| Systemic signals | ||
|---|---|---|
| Signal | Effect on adipose tissue | Study |
| Cardiometabolic disease |
• Hyperplasia • Hypertrophy |
(Fuster et al., 2016) |
| • Adipocytes acquire a dysfunctional, lipid‐laden phenotype | (Ketelhuth et al., 2019) | |
|
• Inflammatory cell infiltration • Macrophage polarisation towards the M1 pro‐inflammatory phenotype |
(Rutkowski et al., 2015) | |
|
• Pericyte activation • Secretion of PDGF‐β • Localised neoangiogenesis |
(Onogi et al., 2017) | |
|
• Vasomotor dysfunction • Capillary rarefaction |
(Chadderdon et al., 2014) | |
|
• Hypoxia • Increased expression of hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1α • Fibrosis |
(Pasarica et al., 2009) | |
| • Brown adipose tissue depletion | (Franssens et al., 2017) | |
| Regional signals | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Signal | Model | Effect on perivascular adipose tissue | Study |
| Endovascular injury | Rodent |
• Up‐regulation of MCP‐1, TNF‐α and IL‐6 and down‐regulation of adiponectin in periadventitial fat 1 day after the injury • Accumulation of F4/80‐positive macrophages and CD3‐positive T‐cells in periadventitial fat |
(Takaoka et al., 2010) |
| Oxidative stress and release of peroxidation products | Human | • Up‐regulation of PPAR‐γ and adiponectin in perivascular adipose tissue around saphenous veins and internal mammary arteries | (Margaritis et al., 2013) |
| Angiotensin II‐induced up‐regulation of IL‐6, TNF‐α and IFN‐γ | Human |
• Inhibition of preadipocyte differentiation • Proliferation of preadipocytes • Lower intracellular accumulation of lipid droplets • Attenuation shifts in CT imaging |
(Antonopoulos et al., 2017) |
| Drug‐eluting stent‐induced hyperconstriction | Porcine |
• Reduced adipocyte diameter • Increased CD68‐positive and IL‐1β‐positive cells • Increased 18F‐FDG uptake in in vivo PET‐CT imaging |
(Ohyama et al., 2017) |