Table 2.
In vivo anticancer activities of GL and GA.
| Cancer type | Animal models | Compound | Dose (route) | Effects | Mechanisms | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breast cancer | MDA-MB-231 xenografts in athymic female nude mice | GA | 40 mg/kg (i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis | ↓MMP2, ↓MMP9 | [173] |
| Colon cancer | DMH-induced colon carcinogenesis in male Wistar rats | GZA | 15 − 20 mg/kg (p.o.) | Suppressed development of precancerous lesions | ↓NF-κB, ↓TNF-α, ↓COX-2, ↓iNOS, ↓VEGF, ↑p53, ↑connexin-43, ↑caspase-9 | [70] |
| Endometrial cancer | MNU-induced carcinogenesis in the uterine tube in female ICR mice | GL | 0.0625% or 0.625% GL alone or in combination with 5 ppm E2 (p.o.) | Suppressed development of precancerous lesions | ↓COX-2, ↓IL-1α, ↓TNF-α | [78] |
| Gastric cancer | Transgenic mouse tumor model | 18β-GA | 0.05% 18β-GA (drinking water) | Inhibited tumor initiation and progression | ↓COX-2 | [61] |
| Laryngeal cancer | HEP-2 xenografts in BALB/c nude mice | MI | 300 mg/kg (s.c.) | Inhibited tumor progression and EMT | ↓Twist, ↓NF-κB | [110] |
| Leukemia | TF-1 xenografts in female BALB/c mice | GZA | 100 mg/kg(peritumoral) | Inhibited tumor growth | ↓Akt, ↓mTOR, ↓STAT3 | [143] |
| Lung cancer | A549-TPα lung adenocarcinoma in female nude mice | GL alone or in combination with Cisplatin | 15–135 mg/kg(i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth | ↓TxAS, ↓PCNA | [69] |
| Lung cancer | A549 xenografts in female nude mice | GL | 50 mg/kg(p.o.) | Inhibited tumor growth | ↓TxAS, ↓TxA2 | [174] |
| Lung cancer | HCC827 xenografts in PDX nude mice | GL | 100 mg/kg (i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth | ↓HMGB1, ↓JAK, ↓STAT3 | [126] |
| Melanoma | B16F10 xenografts in female C57BL/6 mice | GZA | 1–100 mg/kg (i.d.) | Inhibited tumor growth and induced apoptosis | ↓pSTAT3, ↓IL10, ↓TGFβ, ↑IL12, ↑IFNγ, ↑TNFα | [75] |
| Osteosarcoma | HOS xenografts in female BALB/c nude mice | 18β-GA | 2 mg/kg (i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth and induced cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy | ↑Cleaved caspase-3, ↑LC3B-II, ↑p-JNK, ↑cyclin E, ↑CDK4, ↑cyclin D1 | [96] |
| Ovarian cancer | A2780 xenografts in nude mice | GA | 10–30 mg/kg (i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth/ angiogenesis and induced apoptosis | ↓VEGF | [175] |
| Pituitary cancer | GH3 xenografts in male BALB/c athymic nude mice | 18β-GA | 20 mg/kg (i.p.) | Inhibited tumor growth and induced apoptosis | ↑ROS, ↑MAPK | [138] |
| Skin cancer | DMBA/ TPA-induced papillomas in Swiss albino female mice | 18β-GA | 1.25–2.5 mg (topical) | Inhibited tumor initiation and progression | ↓OLD | [55] |