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. 2022 Feb 3;198(2):381–392. doi: 10.1007/s00442-022-05107-w

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Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — The resource dispersion hypothesis (Macdonald 1983) predicts that high resource abundance increases group-living, and Hersteinsson’s model predicts that high predation pressure increases group-living in prey species with cooperative defence (Norén et al. 2012). In the Scandinavian mountain tundra, top predators switch to alternative prey when basal prey decrease, forming a negative link between food availability and intra-guild predation pressure on mesopredators. The two perspectives have different predictions regarding group size when resources are scarce, but intra-guild predation pressure is high. Hersteinsson’s model has not previously been tested regarding to temporal variation in predation pressure