Fig. 4.

Effects of glyphosate or tylosin exposure on the expression of immunity genes in honey bees in fall 2020. A–E RT-qPCR expression for the genes A abaecin, B apidaecin, C defensin-2, D hymenoptaecin and E prophenoloxidase relative to the housekeeping gene rps5 in the bodies of unexposed and 5 day exposed bees. n = 17, 11, 19, and 13 for control (C), 0.1 mM glyphosate (0.1G), 1.0 mM glyphosate (1G), and 0.1 mM tylosin (0.1T) groups, respectively. Averages and standard deviations are shown as bars and error bars. The linear regression ‘lm’ option in the pcr package in R was applied to estimate differences between control and treatment groups. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001