Fig. 5.

Ex vivo and in vivo experiments to investigate the effects of glyphosate and tylosin on melanization in honey bees. Ex vivo experiments were performed with 1-day old bees, 5-day old bees lacking or containing a normal microbiota, and hive bees. 2 μL of hemolymph were extracted from individual bees and used along with variable concentrations of glyphosate or tylosin (0, 0.1, 1, 2, 4, 7 or 10 mM) in melanization assays. In vivo experiments were performed with 5-day old bees lacking or containing a normal microbiota and hive bees previously exposed to different concentrations of glyphosate or tylosin (0, 0.1, 1 or 10 mM) for 5 days. 2 μL or 5 μL of hemolymph were extracted from exposed bees and used in melanization assays. MD microbiota-defective, CV conventional microbiota