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. 2022 Feb 22;21:11. doi: 10.1186/s12937-022-00764-2

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 5 — Fecal microbiota qPCR results by feeding group for a Clostridioides difficile, b Clostridium perfringens, c Klebsiella pneumoniae at baseline (≤ 14 days of age), 1, 2, and 3 months of age. Values are means of 10⁴ copies/mg fecal dry weight with SE as whiskers. Feeding groups were compared using log-transformed data in a Mixed Model Repeated Measures adjusted for baseline values, sex, mode of delivery, antibiotic use, study center, and visit. BF, breastfed group; CG, control group; EG, experimental group. # = p < 0.05 for EG compared to CG. * = p < 0.05 for CG compared to BF. ^ = p < 0.05 for EG compared to BF. Sample size at each timepoint was: 38–61 in CG, 47–70 in EG and 17–22 in BF for Clostridioides difficile; 64–74 in CG, 71–92 in EG and 23–26 in BF for Clostridium perfringens; 65–68 in CG, 72–84 in EG and 21–24 in BF for Klebsiella pneumoniae