Table 1.

Overview of the classification, properties and effects of the chemical compounds used in the included studies

Compound group	Compound (abbreviation)	Period used	Main use and present routes of exposure	Half-life	Main effect in humans
Organochlorines	Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
	p,p’-dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (p,p’-DDT)	1940-1986	Pesticides (ingestion, dermal exposure)	7-8 years	Estrogenic
	o,p’-dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (o,p’-DDT)
	p,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p’-DDE): metabolite of DDT				Antiandrogenic
	Cyclodienes
	Chlordanes
	cis-chlordane (α-chlordane)	1948-1988 (all production was stopped in 1976)	Pesticide in agriculture and home building for termites. (ingestion, dermal exposure)	≤30 years	Antiandrogenic
	trans-chlordane (β -chlordane)
	cis-heptachlordane [(+) − heptachlor]
	Heptachlor epoxide: metabolite of heptachlor
	Oxychlordane: metabolite of chlordane
	Dieldrin (an epoxy of aldrin)	1948-1984 (an alternative to DDT). Still used in some developing countries	Insecticide in agriculture (ingestion, dermal exposure)	≤30 years	Antiandrogenic
	Mirex (dechlorane, perchloropenta-cyclodecane)	1959-1978	Insecticide (ants), as a flame retardant in plastics, rubber, paint, paper, and electrical goods (ingestion, dermal exposure)	≤30 years	Antiandrogenic
	Hexachlorobenzene or perchlorbenzene	1945-1965	Fungicide, in the manufacture of dyes, synthesis of organic chemicals, rubber, wood preservation and fireworks (ingestion, dermal exposure)	≤6 years	Antiandrogenic
	Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCCH)
	β-HCCH	-late 1980’s	Insecticide (ingestion, dermal exposure)	≤6 years	Human carcinogen
	α-HCCH	-late 1980’s	Insecticide (ingestion, dermal exposure)
	γ-HCCH (or Lindane)	-late 1980’s	Insecticide (fruits) and to treat lead lice (ingestion, dermal exposure)
Organohalogens	Polychlorinated biphenyl congeners (6)	1920-late 1970	Electrical equipment, plasticizers in paints, coolants, flourescent lights. (ingestion, inhalation, dermal exposure)	≤16 years	Variable effects depending on congener: estrogenic, antiestrogenic, antiandrogenic
	Polybrominated diphenyl congeners	1960-early 2000	Flame-retardants in building materials, electronics, furnishings, motor vehicles, airplanes, plastics, polyurethane foams, and textiles (ingestion, inhalation, dermal exposure)	≤12 years	Variable effects depending on congener: Lower brominated (up to hexa-BDEs) are estrogenic, higher brominated and some hydroxylated are antiestrogenic
Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS)	Perfluorooctanoic acid Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)	Presently being phased out in favor of PFAS with shorter half-lives	Stain and water repellents (carpeting, upholstery, apparel), floor wax, firefighting foam, textiles and sealants. PFOS was a key ingredient in 3M Scotchgard. (ingestion, inhalation, dermal exposure)	≤10 years	Mixed effects (antiandrogenic, antiestrogenic), experimental studies report that PFAS substances severely affect proliferation and function of Leydig cells in rats.
Plasticizers	Phthalates	1920-partial restriction for many of the most potent phthalates (Di-n-butyl-phthalate, butylbenzyl phthalate BBzP, Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and Di-isononyl phthalate) since 2010, and almost banned in EU since summer 2020	Personal care products, plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), construction materials, PVC consumer products (clothing, food packaging, toys, medical devices). (ingestion, inhalation, dermal exposure)	12 h	Antiandrogenic. Exert their toxic action by inhibiting Leydig cell synthesis of testosterone, and there is consistent evidence of dose-related inverse associations between human blood levels and testosterone.
Bisphenols	Bisphenol A	1958—restricted in 2019	Polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resins, plastic toys, and water bottles (ingestion, dermal exposure)	4-5 h	Estrogenic