Table 3.
Univariate linear regression of correlates of perceived HIV-related stigma among adults living with HIV from rural Kilifi
| Independent variables | N | Dependent variables | |||||||||
| Personalised stigma | Disclosure concerns | Public attitudes | Negative self-image | Overall HIV stigma score‡ | |||||||
| B (95% CI) | P value | B (95% CI) | P value | B (95% CI) | P value | B (95% CI) | P value | B (95% CI) | P value | ||
| Sociodemographic characteristics | |||||||||||
| Age | 450 | −0.01 (−0.03 to 0.02) | 0.595 | 0.01 (−0.02 to 0.02) | 0.999 | 0.01 (−0.02 to 0.04) | 0.399 | −0.01 (−0.03 to 0.03) | 0.880 | 0.01 (−0.07 to 0.08) | 0.910 |
| Gender | 450 | ||||||||||
| Male | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Female | 0.52 (−0.06 to 1.10) | 0.080* | 0.29 (−0.25 to 0.83) | 1.07 (0.35 to 1.79) | 0.003** | 0.40 (−0.29 to 1.08) | 0.255 | 2.27 (0.54 to 4.01) | 0.010** | ||
| Marital status | 450 | 0.074 | |||||||||
| Married | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Separated/divorced/widowed | 0.54 (0.03 to 1.04) | 0.038** | 0.67 (0.20 to 1.14) | 0.005** | 0.25 (−0.38 to 0.87) | 0.442 | 0.73 (0.14 to 1.32) | 0.016** | 2.18 (0.67 to 3.69) | 0.005** | |
| Single/never married | 0.61 (−0.14 to 1.37) | 0.111* | 0.17 (−0.52 to 0.87) | 0.626 | −0.43 (−1.37 to −0.51) | 0.369 | 0.40 (−0.49 to 1.28) | 0.378 | 0.75 (−1.50 to 3.01) | 0.512 | |
| Education level | 450 | ||||||||||
| Tertiary | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Secondary | −0.12 (−1.36 to 1.12) | 0.847 | 0.08 (−1.06 to 1.21) | 0.896 | 0.68 (−0.84 to 2.21) | 0.380 | −0.03 (−1.46 to 1.40) | 0.967 | 0.61 (−3.05 to 4.26) | 0.745 | |
| Primary | −0.31 (−1.43 to 0.81) | 0.582 | 0.48 (−0.55 to 1.51) | 0.360 | 1.32 (−0.06 to 2.70) | 0.061* | 0.72 (−0.57 to 2.01) | 0.273 | 2.20 (−1.10 to 5.51) | 0.191* | |
| None | 0.15 (−1.01 to 1.32) | 0.794 | 1.23 (0.16 to 2.30) | 0.024** | 1.80 (0.36 to 3.23) | 0.014** | 1.63 (0.29 to 2.97) | 0.018** | 4.81 (1.38 to 8.25) | 0.006** | |
| Employment status | 450 | ||||||||||
| Formally employed | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Self-employed | 0.67 (−0.16 to 1.50) | 0.112* | 0.27 (−0.50 to 1.05) | 0.490 | 0.46 (−0.57 to 1.49) | 0.385 | 0.73*(−0.24 to 1.70) | 0.141* | 2.13 (−0.36 to 4.62) | 0.094* | |
| Other | −0.67 (−2.33 to 0.99) | 0.429 | −0.02 (−1.57 to 1.53) | 0.983 | −1.14 (−3.20 to 0.93) | 0.279 | −0.35 (−2.29 to 1.60) | 0.726 | −2.17 (−7.15 to 2.81) | 0.392 | |
| Unemployed | 0.51 (−0.25 to 1.26) | 0.187* | 0.33 (−0.37 to 1.03) | 0.360 | 0.18 (−0.76 to 1.11) | 0.710 | 1.03 (0.15 to 1.91) | 0.022** | 2.04 (−0.22 to 4.30) | 0.077* | |
| Currently living with | 450 | ||||||||||
| Immediate family | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Relative/friend | 0.86 (−0.75 to 2.47) | 0.294 | 0.02 (−1.47 to 1.52) | 0.975 | 0.18 (−1.82 to 2.18) | 0.862 | −0.45 (−2.34 to 1.45) | 0.644 | 0.62 (−4.23 to 5.46) | 0.802 | |
| Alone | 0.01 (−0.65 to 0.66) | 0.995 | −0.25 (−0.87 to 0.36) | 0.414 | −0.06 (−0.88 to 0.76) | 0.887 | −0.07 (−0.84 to 0.70) | 0.860 | −0.38 (−2.36 to 1.60) | 0.706 | |
| Asset index score†—mean (SD) | 450 | −0.12 (−0.29 to 0.05) | 0.171* | −0.13 (−0.29 to 0.03) | 0.109* | −0.11 (−0.33 to –0.10) | 0.310 | −0.12 (−0.32 to –0.08) | 0.244* | −0.48 (−1.00 to –0.04) | 0.068* |
| Clinical characteristics | |||||||||||
| BMI—kg/m2; mean (SD); OM=4 | 0.004 (−0.04 to 0.05) | 0.855 | −0.03 (−0.07 to 0.02) | 0.244 | 0.03 (−0.03 to 0.09) | 0.309 | −0.03 (−0.18 to 0.12) | 0.708 | −0.03 (−0.18 to 0.12) | 0.708 | |
| Viral load OM=145 | 305 | ||||||||||
| ≤1000 copies/mL | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| >1000 copies/mL | 0.58 (−0.28 to 1.44) | 0.183* | 0.10 (−0.70 to 0.90) | 0.07 (−1.00 to 1.14) | 0.894 | 1.05 (0.08 to 2.02) | 0.033** | 1.81 (−0.79 to 4.40) | 0.172* | ||
| Months since HIV diagnosis | 450 | 0.00 (−0.00 to 0.01) | 0.346 | −0.01 (−0.01 to -0.00) | 0.001** | −0.00 (−0.01 to 0.00) | 0.630 | −0.01 (−0.01 to 0.00) | 0.057* | −0.01 (0.03 to 0.00) | 0.091* |
| Months since cART initiation OM=4 | 446 | 0.00 (−0.00 to 0.01) | 0.497 | −0.01 (−0.01 to -0.00) | 0.001*** | −0.00 (−0.01 to 0.00) | 0.202* | −0.01 (−0.01 to -0.00) | 0.031** | −0.02 (−0.03 to −0.00) | 0.031** |
| Treatment characteristics | |||||||||||
| HIV status disclosure | 450 | ||||||||||
| Yes | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| No | 0.23 (−0.77 to 1.23) | 0.651 | 1.86 (0.94 to 2.77) | 0.000*** | 0.67 (−0.57 to 1.91) | 0.287 | 0.72 (−0.45 to 1.89) | 0.228 | 3.47 (0.49 to 6.46) | 0.022** | |
| Any current opportunistic infections | 450 | ||||||||||
| No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 0.65 (0.04 to 1.26) | 0.037** | 0.09 (−0.48 to 0.65) | 0.786 | 0.12 (−0.64 to 0.88) | 0.759 | 0.87 (0.16 to 1.59) | 0.017** | 1.72 (−0.11 to 3.55) | 0.065* | |
| CMD comorbidity OM=48 | 402 | ||||||||||
| Absence | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Presence | 2.71 (1.58 to 3.84) | 0.000*** | 0.18 (−0.91 to 1.28) | 0.741 | 1.09 (−0.38 to 2.55) | 0.144* | 3.07 (1.76 to 4.39) | 0.000*** | 7.06 (3.71 to 10.41) | 0.000*** | |
Overall stigma scale represents the sum of all twelve items from the four subscales; A negative stigma score indicates less stigma.
*P<0.20, **p<0.05, ***p<0.001.
†Score range = 0–7.
‡Score range = 12–48.
BMI, body mass index; cART, combination antiretroviral therapy; CMD, symptoms of depression and anxiety; OM, observation with missing value; Ref, reference category.