Table 3.
Changes in glucose (mg/dL) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) (%) according to tertiles of change of polyphenol intake (mg/dL) after one year. Results from linear mixed models.
| T1 (vs. T2) | P | T2 | T3 (vs. T2) | P | T3 (vs. T1) | P | P-Trend | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total polyphenols | −249 (−2400, −106) a | 2 (−106, 107) | 257 (107, 1400) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −2.56 (−3.46, −1.66) b | <0.001 | ref. | −2.34 (−3.24, −1.44) | <0.001 | 0.22 (−0.74, 1.18) | 0.66 | 0.12 |
| Model 2 | −2.78 (−3.72, −1.84) | <0.001 | ref. | −2.56 (−3.51, −1.61) | <0.001 | 0.23 (−0.78, 1.23) | 0.62 | 0.33 | |
| Model 3 | −0.94 (−2.36, 0.48) | 0.19 | ref. | −1.76 (−3.18, −0.34) | 0.015 | −0.82 (−2.24, 0.61) | 0.23 | 0.43 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.015 (−0.008, 0.037) | 0.19 | ref. | 0.008 (−0.015, 0.031) | 0.50 | −0.007 (−0.031, 0.018) | 0.55 | 0.76 |
| Model 2 | 0.011 (−0.012, 0.034) | 0.35 | ref. | 0.001 (−0.023, 0.025) | 0.92 | −0.01 (−0.035, 0.016) | 0.44 | 0.80 | |
| Model 3 | −0.039 (−0.076, −0.002) | 0.04 | ref. | −0.032 (−0.069, 0.005) | 0.09 | 0.007 (−0.031, 0.044) | 0.36 | 0.46 | |
| Total flavonoids | −195 (−2405, −78) | 3 (−78, 84) | 193 (84, 1383) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 0.46 (−0.45, 1.37) | 0.32 | ref. | −0.6 (−1.51, 0.31) | 0.20 | −1.06 (−2.04, −0.07) | 0.04 | 0.16 |
| Model 2 | 0.01 (−0.95, 0.96) | 0.99 | ref. | −0.79 (−1.75, 0.18) | 0.11 | −0.79 (−1.83, 0.24) | 0.14 | 0.16 | |
| Model 3 | 0.17 (−1.25, 1.59) | 0.81 | ref. | −1.39 (−2.82, 0.04) | 0.06 | −1.56 (−2.99, −0.13) | 0.03 | 0.16 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.029 (−0.052, −0–006) | 0.014 | ref. | −0.033 (−0.057, −0.01) | 0.006 | −0.004 (−0.029, 0.021) | 0.79 | 0.42 |
| Model 2 | −0.019 (−0.043, 0.005) | 0.12 | ref. | −0.021 (−0.045, 0.004) | 0.09 | −0.002 (−0.027, 0.024) | 0.95 | 0.23 | |
| Model 3 | −0.024 (−0.061, 0.013) | 0.21 | ref. | −0.024 (−0.061, 0.013) | 0.20 | −0.001 (−0.038, 0.037) | 0.99 | 0.72 | |
| Anthocyanidins | −25 (−526, −10) | 0 (−10, 10) | 25 (10, 209) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 1.87 (0.96, 2.78) | <0.001 | ref. | 1.72 (0.81, 2.63) | <0.001 | −0.15 (−1.1, 0.8) | 0.76 | 0.05 |
| Model 2 | 1.42 (0.46, 2.37) | 0.004 | ref. | 1.74 (0.77, 2.70) | <0.001 | 0.32 (−0.68, 1.32) | 0.56 | 0.03 | |
| Model 3 | 0.06 (−1.36, 1.48) | 0.93 | ref. | −0.43 (−1.86, 1.00) | 0.56 | −0.49 (−1.92, 0.94) | 0.50 | 0.89 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.024 (0.001, 0.047) | 0.04 | ref. | −0.026 (−0.05, −0.003) | 0.03 | −0.05 (−0.075, −0.025) | <0.001 | 0.83 |
| Model 2 | 0.019 (−0.004, 0.043) | 0.11 | ref. | −0.019 (−0.044, 0.005) | 0.12 | −0.039 (−0.064, −0.013) | 0.003 | 0.35 | |
| Model 3 | −0.028 (−0.065, 0.009) | 0.14 | ref. | −0.037 (−0.075, 0.000) | 0.05 | −0.009 (−0.047, 0.028) | 0.66 | 0.62 | |
| Catechins | −14 (−162, −5) | 0 (−5, 6) | 14 (6, 176) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −0.46 (−1.35, 0.42) | 0.31 | ref. | 0.25 (−0.65, 1.14) | 0.59 | 0.71 (−0.2, 1.61) | 0.12 | 0.77 |
| Model 2 | 0.00 (−0.93, 0.93) | 0.99 | ref. | 0.29 (−0.64, 1.23) | 0.54 | 0.29 (−0.66, 1.24) | 0.55 | 0.51 | |
| Model 3 | 0.76 (−0.66, 2.17) | 0.30 | ref. | −0.11 (−1.53, 1.31) | 0.90 | −0.87 (−2.29, 0.55) | 0.23 | 0.27 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.038 (0.016, 0.06) | 0.001 | ref. | 0.029 (0.006, 0.052) | 0.01 | −0.009 (−0.032, 0.014) | 0.36 | 0.89 |
| Model 2 | 0.044 (0.021, 0.067) | <0.001 | ref. | 0.028 (0.004, 0.051) | 0.02 | −0.017 (−0.04, 0.007) | 0.15 | 0.90 | |
| Model 3 | 0.008 (−0.028, 0.045) | 0.65 | ref. | −0.019 (−0.057, 0.018) | 0.30 | −0.028 (−0.065, 0.009) | 0.14 | 0.35 | |
| Proanthocyanidins | −122 (−2169, −48) | −4 (−48, 40) | 106 (40, 1207) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 1.97 (1.07, 2.87) | <0.001 | ref. | 0.27 (−0.63, 1.18) | 0.55 | −1.7 (−2.64, −0.75) | <0.001 | 0.10 |
| Model 2 | 1.15 (0.19, 2.11) | 0.02 | ref. | −0.35 (−1.31, 0.61) | 0.47 | −1.51 (−2.5, −0.51) | 0.003 | 0.01 | |
| Model 3 | 1.13 (−0.29, 2.55) | 0.12 | ref. | −0.15 (−1.58, 1.29) | 0.84 | −1.28 (−2.71, 0.15) | 0.08 | 0.61 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.031 (0.008, 0.054) | 0.009 | ref. | −0.015 (−0.039, 0.008) | 0.20 | −0.046 (−0.071, −0.022) | <0.001 | 0.001 |
| Model 2 | 0.031 (0.007, 0.055) | 0.01 | ref. | −0.014 (−0.038, 0.011) | 0.28 | −0.044 (−0.07, −0.019) | 0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Model 3 | −0.012 (−0.049, 0.025) | 0.51 | ref. | −0.02 (−0.058, 0.018) | 0.30 | −0.008 (−0.045, 0.030) | 0.70 | 0.56 | |
| Flavanones | −42 (−554, −5) | 13 (−5, 36) | 77 (36, 860) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −1.48 (−2.38, −0.58) | 0.001 | ref. | −2.27 (−3.19, −1.35) | <0.001 | −0.79 (−1.76, 0.18) | 0.11 | 0.75 |
| Model 2 | −1.37 (−2.31, −0.43) | 0.004 | ref. | −2.52 (−3.49, −1.55) | <0.001 | −1.15 (−2.16, −0.15) | 0.04 | 0.30 | |
| Model 3 | 0.53 (−0.88, 1.95) | 0.46 | ref. | −0.33 (−1.75, 1.09) | 0.65 | −0.86 (−2.28, 0.56) | 0.24 | 0.38 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.026 (−0.048, −0.003) | 0.02 | ref. | 0.019 (−0.004, 0.043) | 0.11 | 0.045 (0.021, 0.07) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | −0.013 (−0.036, 0.010) | 0.28 | ref. | 0.011 (−0.013, 0.036) | 0.36 | 0.024 (−0.001, 0.05) | 0.06 | 0.02 | |
| Model 3 | −0.015 (−0.052, 0.022) | 0.43 | ref. | 0.007 (−0.030, 0.044) | 0.71 | 0.022 (−0.015, 0.059) | 0.25 | 0.10 | |
| Flavones | −21 (−305, 1) | 13 (1, 30) | 55 (30, 344) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 0.71 (−0.2, 1.63) | 0.12 | ref. | −0.46 (−1.44, 0.52) | 0.36 | −1.17 (−2.19, −0.16) | 0.02 | 0.007 |
| Model 2 | 1.05 (0.08, 2.02) | 0.03 | ref. | −0.09 (−1.12, 0.94) | 0.86 | −1.14 (−2.2, −0.08) | 0.03 | 0.008 | |
| Model 3 | −1.2 (−2.64, 0.23) | 0.10 | ref. | −1.56 (−3.02, −0.11) | 0.62 | −1.56 (−3.02, −0.11) | 0.04 | 0.20 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.053 (−0.076, −0.029) | <0.001 | ref. | −0.026 (−0.051, 0.000) | 0.05 | 0.027 (0.001, 0.053) | 0.019 | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | −0.045 (−0.07, −0.021) | <0.001 | ref. | −0.024 (−0.05, 0.003) | 0.08 | 0.022 (−0.005, 0.049) | 0.06 | <0.001 | |
| Model 3 | −0.015 (−0.053, 0.022) | 0.41 | ref. | −0.049 (−0.087, −0.012) | 0.01 | −0.034 (−0.072, 0.004) | 0.08 | 0.12 | |
| Flavonols | −15 (−103, −4) | 4 (−4, 12) | 26 (12, 177) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −1.59 (−2.5, −0.67) | 0.001 | ref. | 1.4 (0.44, 2.36) | 0.004 | 2.99 (1.96, 4.01) | <0.001 | 0.51 |
| Model 2 | −1.4 (−2.37, −0.44) | 0.004 | ref. | 1.3 (0.3, 2.3) | 0.01 | 2.7 (1.63, 3.78) | <0.001 | 0.85 | |
| Model 3 | 0.13 (−1.29, 1.55) | 0.86 | ref. | −1.36 (−2.78, 0.06) | 0.06 | −1.49 (−2.93, −0.05) | 0.04 | 0.03 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.019 (−0.004, 0.042) | 0.11 | ref. | −0.053 (−0.077, −0.029) | <0.001 | −0.072 (−0.098, −0.045) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | 0.017 (−0.007, 0.04) | 0.17 | ref. | −0.036 (−0.061, −0.011) | 0.004 | −0.053 (−0.08, −0.026) | <0.001 | 0.05 | |
| Model 3 | −0.005 (−0.042, 0.033) | 0.81 | ref. | −0.073 (−0.11, −0.036) | <0.001 | −0.069 (−0.106, −0.031) | <0.001 | 0.003 | |
| Hydroxycinnamic acids | −103 (−725, −32) | −3 (−32, 26) | 93 (26, 739) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −3.07 (−3.96, −2.19) | <0.001 | ref. | −1.28 (−2.17, −0.38) | 0.005 | 1.8 (0.86, 2.73) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | −3.24 (−4.17, −2.3) | <0.001 | ref. | −1.28 (−2.22, −0.34) | 0.007 | 1.96 (0.97, 2.94) | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Model 3 | −0.94 (−2.36, 0.47) | 0.19 | ref. | −0.26 (−1.68, 1.16) | 0.72 | 0.69 (−0.74, 2.11) | 0.34 | 0.47 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.015 (−0.037, 0.007) | 0.18 | ref. | 0.02 (−0.003, 0.042) | 0.09 | 0.035 (0.011, 0.059) | 0.004 | 0.41 |
| Model 2 | −0.018 (−0.041, 0.006) | 0.14 | ref. | 0.016 (−0.007, 0.039) | 0.18 | 0.034 (0.009, 0.058) | 0.008 | 0.85 | |
| Model 3 | −0.04 (−0.077, −0.004) | 0.03 | ref. | −0.021 (−0.058, 0.016) | 0.26 | 0.019 (−0.018, 0.057) | 0.31 | 0.40 | |
| Hydroxybenzoic acids | −13 (−55, −7) | −4.4 (−7, −1) | 3.3 (−1, 64) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 0.13 (−0.73, 0.99) | 0.77 | ref. | −0.06 (−0.94, 0.82) | 0.89 | −0.19 (−1.14, 0.76) | 0.70 | 0.79 |
| Model 2 | 0.27 (−0.63, 1.18) | 0.55 | ref. | 0.04 (−0.88, 0.96) | 0.93 | −0.23 (−1.22, 0.76) | 0.64 | 0.93 | |
| Model 3 | −0.1 (−1.53, 1.33) | 0.89 | ref. | 0.33 (−1.09, 1.76) | 0.65 | 0.44 (−1.02, 1.89) | 0.56 | 0.80 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.038 (−0.06, −0.016) | 0.001 | ref. | −0.027 (−0.049, −0.004) | 0.02 | 0.011 (−0.013, 0.036) | 0.32 | 0.77 |
| Model 2 | −0.035 (−0.058, −0.013) | 0.002 | ref. | −0.028 (−0.051, −0.005) | 0.016 | 0.007 (−0.018, 0.032) | 0.53 | 0.70 | |
| Model 3 | 0.001 (−0.036, 0.038) | 0.96 | ref. | 0.007 (−0.03, 0.044) | 0.70 | 0.006 (−0.032, 0.044) | 0.75 | 0.77 | |
| Lignans | −0.4 (−7,2, −0.1) | 0.1 (−0.1, 0.3) | 0.5 (0.3, 5.8) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | 0.27 (−0.67, 1.2) | 0.58 | ref. | 0.63 (−0.31, 1.58) | 0.19 | 0.37 (−0.66, 1.4) | 0.50 | 0.05 |
| Model 2 | 0.33 (−0.65, 1.3) | 0.52 | ref. | 0.49 (−0.52, 1.49) | 0.34 | 0.16 (−0.91, 1.23) | 0.59 | 0.006 | |
| Model 3 | 0.54 (−0.89, 1.96) | 0.46 | ref. | −1.08 (−2.51, 0.35) | 0.14 | −1.62 (−3.07, −0.17) | 0.03 | 0.08 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | 0.025 (0.002, 0.049) | 0.03 | ref. | 0.001 (−0.024, 0.026) | 0.96 | −0.025 (−0.052, 0.002) | 0.06 | 0.09 |
| Model 2 | 0.03 (0.006, 0.054) | 0.01 | ref. | 0.003 (−0.023, 0.029) | 0.82 | −0.027 (−0.055, 0) | 0.04 | 0.21 | |
| Model 3 | 0.031 (−0.006, 0.068) | 0.10 | ref. | −0.041 (−0.078, −0.003) | 0.03 | −0.072 (−0.11, −0.034) | <0.001 | 0.003 | |
| Stilbenes | −1.4 (−30.3, −0.6) | 0.0 (−0.6, 0.6) | 1.7 (0.6, 27.1) | ||||||
| Glucose | Model 1 | −0.54 (−1.43, 0.35) | 0.24 | ref. | −1.17 (−2.04, −0.3) | 0.08 | −0.64 (−1.54, 0.27) | 0.15 | 0.004 |
| Model 2 | −0.28 (−1.21, 0.66) | 0.46 | ref. | −1.09 (−2, −0.18) | 0.02 | −0.81 (−1.76, 0.14) | 0.08 | 0.008 | |
| Model 3 | 1.1 (−0.35, 2.55) | 0.14 | ref. | −0.6 (−2.08, 0.87) | 0.42 | −1.7 (−3.25, −0.16) | 0.03 | 0.81 | |
| HbA1c | Model 1 | −0.057 (−0.08, −0.035) | <0.001 | ref. | −0.024 (−0.046, −0.002) | 0.03 | 0.033 (0.011, 0.056) | 0.004 | 0.60 |
| Model 2 | −0.051 (−0.074, −0.028) | <0.001 | ref. | −0.02 (−0.042, 0.003) | 0.09 | 0.032 (0.008, 0.055) | 0.009 | 0.41 | |
| Model 3 | −0.005 (−0.042, 0.033) | 0.81 | ref. | −0.038 (−0.076, 0.001) | 0.06 | −0.033 (−0.073, 0.007) | 0.11 | 0.15 |
a Median intake (min and max) in mg/day for each tertile. b (β; 95% CI). We used generalized linear mixed models with the following levels: recruitment center and household. Model 1 is adjusted for sex, age (continuous), and intervention group. Model 2 is as model 1 plus education, smoking status (never, former and smokers), and physical activity in leisure time (sedentary, moderately active, active). Model 3 is as model 2 plus BMI (<30, 30–35, <35), energy intake, intake of carbohydrates, saturated fatty acids, and proteins, alcohol, and glucose-lowering treatment.