Figure 5.

taVNS induced anti-inflammatory effect on the intestine of LPS-induced endotoxemia. (A) Determination of the pro-inflammatory cytokines in the intestine of LPS-induced inflammation with or without taVNS treatment. The relative expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to taVNS treatment of LPS-induced endotoxemia were indicated. Fold change of groups was represented as a graph and calculated decreases rate in taVNS treated groups. (B) The morphological changes of the intestine were represented. Scale bar: 10 mm. (C) H&E staining showed the histological change of the intestine upon observation under a light microscope. Scale bar: 200 μm (upper panels) and 50 μm (lower panels). The villus height and crypto depth of the intestine were determined and represented by a graph. (D) Immunohistochemical staining with anti-MPO antibodies showed a significant decrease in neutrophils in LPS-induced inflammation by interventions as of taVNS. Scale bar: 50 μm. All taVNS groups were treated with electrical stimulation for 10 min. Data have been presented as the means and SD; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001, compared to the corresponding control.