Table 2.

Reported biological roles of aconitic acid.

Biological Uses and Applications	Method or Approach	References
microbial production of itaconic acid	Aspergillus terreus decarboxylation of CAA	[43,44,45]
microbial production of itaconic acid	Ustilago maydis decarboxylation of TAA	[43,46,47,48]
Pseudomonas sp. use as sole carbon source	isomerization of TAA to CAA for TCA cycle	[49]
fermentation inhibitor	in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, pH-dependent	[50,51,52]
nematocidal activity	Meloidogyne incognita	[53]
anti-leishmanial activity	Leishmania donovani	[54,55]
regulation of TCA cycle	TAA-based inhibition of aconitase	[7,56,57]
antifungal defense in plants	methyl-TAA acts as a phytoalexin	[58]
antifeedant	involved in resistance of some plants to Nilaparvata lugens	[59,60,61,62]
defense against aluminum toxicity	organic acid chelation of Al	[5,6]
anti-inflammatory activity	inhibition of TNF-α release by monocytes	[63,64,65]
antioxidant activity	DPPH assay and nanoliposomes	[66,67,68]
inhibitor of Glycine max	Increased H2O2 in roots and reduced water uptake	[69]
inhibitor of quorum sensing	ligand inhibitor of PleD	[70]