Table 2.
Association between the patients’ characteristics and geometric mean values of urinary cadmium levels.
| Characteristics | Overall (N = 9639) | Cadmium (µg/g Creatinine) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| N(%) | Geometric Mean | Range | p-Value | |
| Time-Period | <0.001 a | |||
| 2007–2008 | 1934 (19%) | 0.24 | 0.01–4.04 | |
| 2009–2010 | 2111 (20%) | 0.23 | 0.01–3.57 | |
| 2011–2012 | 1805 (20%) | 0.21 | 0.02–7.56 | |
| 2013–2014 | 1925 (21%) | 0.17 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| 2015–2016 | 1864 (21%) | 0.18 | 0.01–2.73 | |
| Age Group | <0.001 a | |||
| Median (Range) | 45 yrs (18–80) | |||
| <45 yrs | 4197 (47%) | 0.13 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| ≥45 yrs | 5219 (53%) | 0.31 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Nativity | <0.001 a | |||
| US | 6827 (82%) | 0.20 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Foreign | 2812 (18%) | 0.24 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Race/Ethnicity (2007–2016) | <0.001 a | |||
| White | 3933 (66%) | 0.21 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Black | 2029 (12%) | 0.20 | 0.01–3.57 | |
| Mexican American | 1524 (9%) | 0.17 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Other Hispanic | 1059 (6%) | 0.18 | 0.01–3.16 | |
| Other b | 1094 (8%) | 0.27 | 0.01–4.47 | |
| Race/Ethnicity (2011–2016) c | <0.001 a | |||
| White | 2061 (65%) | 0.16 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Black | 1235 (11%) | 0.17 | 0.01–2.69 | |
| Mexican American | 791 (9%) | 0.19 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Other Hispanic | 612 (6%) | 0.18 | 0.01–2.58 | |
| Asian | 723 (5%) | 0.33 | 0.02–4.47 | |
| Other d | 172 (3%) | 0.15 | 0.01–0.91 | |
| Gender | <0.001 a | |||
| Male | 4761 (48%) | 0.16 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Female | 4878 (52%) | 0.26 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Income Level | <0.001 a | |||
| Poverty | 2873 (22%) | 0.22 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Low | 2342 (19%) | 0.21 | 0.01–5.90 | |
| Middle | 2289 (27%) | 0.21 | 0.01–4.47 | |
| High | 2135 (33%) | 0.20 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Body Mass Index Category | <0.001 a | |||
| Median (Range) | 27 kg/m2 (13–83) | |||
| Underweight | 290 (3%) | 0.30 | 0.02–3.84 | |
| Normal | 2781 (30%) | 0.21 | 0.01–4.47 | |
| Overweight | 3104 (33%) | 0.21 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Obese | 3464 (35%) | 0.20 | 0.01–4.04 | |
| Smoking Status | <0.001 a | |||
| Nonsmoker | 5530 (56%) | 0.16 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Former smoker | 2209 (24%) | 0.26 | 0.01–5.49 | |
| Current smoker | 1900 (20%) | 0.30 | 0.01–5.90 | |
| Longest Occupation e,f | <0.001 a | |||
| Never worked | 392 (4%) | 0.18 | 0.02–4.04 | |
| White-collar | 549 (9%) | 0.20 | 0.01–5.90 | |
| Science and education | 658 (11%) | 0.20 | 0.01–4.47 | |
| Health-related | 826 (11%) | 0.24 | 0.01–4.22 | |
| Sales, finance, business | 1057 (15%) | 0.20 | 0.01–7.56 | |
| Office, administrative | 980 (13%) | 0.24 | 0.02–3.57 | |
| Food preparation and services | 548 (6%) | 0.18 | 0.02–3.72 | |
| Blue-collar | 2736 (31%) | 0.22 | 0.01–5.49 | |
a Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the difference in geometric mean of the log transformed creatinine-adjusted urinary cadmium levels between subgroups for each factor. b During 2007–2016, other race was reported as Asian race, mixed race, and other race not specified in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database. c Asian race was collected by NHANES starting in 2011. d During 2011–2016, other race was reported as Asian race, mixed race, and other race not specified in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database. e Data on detailed occupation was only available until 2014. f Longest occupation can be interpreted as either the current job or occupation that was held the longest.