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. 2021 Sep 14;23(1):13–30. doi: 10.1007/s11154-021-09687-5

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Leptin action on lipid metabolism and adipogenesis. Leptin is able to activate lipolysis in white adipose tissue (WAT), by the increase of ATGL (adipose triglyceride lipase) and HSL (hormone sensitive lipase) expression, both acting centrally activating sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and by a direct action on WAT, through β-adrenergic receptors (β-AR). Moreover, leptin directly stimulates fatty acid (FA) oxidation, by the increase of the expression of the genes coding for PPARα (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha), PGC1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha) and CPT1 (Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1), among other proteins, and downregulates lipogenesis, decreasing the expression of SREBP1 (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1), FASN (fatty acid synthase), ACC1 (acetyl-CoA carboxylase), etc., in WAT. In addition, leptin has been shown to exert direct actions stimulating pre-adipocyte differentiation, mainly through the activation of PPARγ2 (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma 2) and C-FOS, into mature adipocytes