Table 1.

Effects of LTS on yield and typical events in major wheat producing countries.

Nation	Year	Regions	LTS intensity/Frequency	Yield losses	Typical events	References
United States	1955–2010	Kansas State	41 times	8 bushels /acre in an annual yield loss	LTS damaged nearly half of Kansas wheat, resulting in an average yield reduction of 31% in the spring of 1981.	Holman et al., 2011
Australia	1999–2007	Queensland and northern New South Wales	Extreme LTS reached −6°C or below	10% yield reductions and $73 million economic losses in an average year	18 frosts in the winter of 2000–2002, with the lowest temperature to −8.8°C in 2001, resulted in severe universal damage.	Frederiks et al., 2004, 2008
China	2000–2008	Shandong province	8 times during this 9-year period	More than 10% of the wheat planting area (total area more than 2.92 million ha) was damaged in five growing seasons	Severe frost occurred frequently in (Taishan area) central Shandong province, with the frequency of up to 70%.	Wang et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2017