Table 2.
List of radio-vaccines against bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens.
| Type of Pathogen | Pathogen | Inactivation Method | Inactivation Dose | Model | Notes | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria | Brucella abortus | Gamma | 4 kGy | Mice | Irradiated strains induced less of an immune response than live strains | (56) |
| Bacteria | Brucella abortus | Gamma | 3 kGy | Mouse | Antigen specific Th1 response | (34) |
| Bacteria | Brucella abortus | Gamma | 2.5 kGy | Mice | Stimulated IFN-gamma and Th1 cells | (57) |
| Bacteria | Brucella abortus | Gamma | 3.5 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge | (58) |
| Bacteria | Brucella abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis | Gamma | 3.5 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge | (36) |
| Bacteria | Brucella melitensis | Gamma | 3.5 kGy | Mouse | Cytotoxic T cell response and protective against challenge | (35) |
| Bacteria | Listeria monocytogenes | Gamma | 6 kGy | Mouse | Induced protective T cell responses | (59) |
| Bacteria | Mannheimia haemolytica | Gamma | 2-20 kGy | Rabbit | Protection upon challenge | (60) |
| Bacteria | Orientia tsutsugamushi | Gamma | 2 kGy | Mice | Partially protective upon challenge | (61) |
| Bacteria | Orientia tsutsugamushi | Gamma | 3 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge | (62) |
| Bacteria | Pasteurella tularensis | X-ray | 10 kGy | Mice | Partially protective upon challenge | (63) |
| Bacteria | Rhodococcus equi | Electron Beam (High Energy) | 4-5 kGy | Horse | Produced cell-mediated and upper respiratory mucosal immune response | (30) |
| Bacteria | Rhodococcus equi | Electron Beam | 5 kGy | Horse | Not protective upon challenge | (64) |
| Bacteria | Rodentibacter pneumotropicus | Electron Beam (Low Energy) | 20 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge and reduced colonization | (65) |
| Bacteria | Salmonella Enteriditis | Electron Beam (High Energy) | 2.5 kGy | Chicken | Protective upon challenge and reduced colonization | (66) |
| Bacteria | Salmonella Typhimurium | Electron Beam (High Energy) | 2.5 kGy | Chicken | Heterophil-mediated innate immune response | (67) |
| Bacteria | Salmonella Typhimurium | Electron Beam (High Energy) | 7 kGy | Mouse | Stimulated innate immune markers and reduced colonization | (31) |
| Bacteria | Salmonella Typhimurium | Gamma | 10-80 kGy | Chicken | Protective upon challenge | (68) |
| Bacteria | Shigella dysenteriae | X-ray | Not reported | Rabbits | Bacteria that were treated for a longer time were non-toxic and protective upon challenge | (44) |
| Bacteria | Staphylococcus aureus | Gamma | 2.5-2.9 kGy | Mice | Induced specific antibody production, but not protective upon challenge | (69) |
| Bacteria | Staphylococcus aureus | Gamma | 25-40 kGy | Mice | Induced B and T cell-dependent protection against challenge | (70) |
| Bacteria | Streptococcus pneumoniae | Gamma | 12 kGy | Mice | Protection upon challenge mediated by B-cells and innate IL-17 response | (71) |
| Bacteria | Streptococcus pneumoniae | Electron Beam | 25 kGy | Rabbit and Mice | Immunogenic and protective upon challenge | (72) |
| Protozoa | Eimeria tenella | Electron Beam (Low Energy) | 0.1-0.5 kGy | Chicken | Partially protective upon challenge | (73) |
| Protozoa | Eimeria tenella | X-ray | 0.2 kGy | Chicken | Protective upon challenge | (74) |
| Protozoa | Plasmodium berghei | X-ray | 0.02-0.15 kGy | Mouse | Protective upon challenge | (75) |
| Protozoa | Plasmodium falciparum | Gamma | 0.12-0.15 kGy | Human | Long-lasting protective immunity | (76) |
| Protozoa | Plasmodium gallinaceum | X-ray | 0.005-0.2 kGy | Mosquito | Sporozoites from irradiated oocysts were non-infective | (49) |
| Virus | Human Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) | Electron Beam (Low Energy) | 20 kGy | Mice | Reduction in viral load upon challenge | (77) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Gamma | 12.6 kGy | Mice | Induced cytotoxic T cells and protective upon against challenge | (78) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Gamma | 10-40 kGy | Mice | Cross-reactive and cross-protective cytotoxic T cell responses | (79) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Gamma | 10 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge; freeze-drying did not affect cross-protective immunity | (80) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Gamma | 50 kGy | Mice | Intranasal vaccination conferred complete protection | (81) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Electron Beam (Low Energy) | 30 kGy | Mouse | Elicited a protective immune response | (82) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Electron Beam | 25-40 kGy | Nonhuman primate | Elicited seroconversion | (51) |
| Virus | Influenza A virus | Gamma | 10 kGy | Mice | Protective upon heterotypic challenge | (83) |
| Virus | Middle Eastern Respiratory Virus (MERS) | Gamma | 50 kGy | Mice | Caused lung immunopathology upon challenge | (84) |
| Virus | Polio Virus | Gamma | 45 kGy | Mice | Protective upon challenge | (85) |
| Virus | Rotavirus | Gamma | 50 kGy | Mice | Induced a specific neutralizing-antibody response | (86) |
| Virus | Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) | Gamma | 50 kGy | Mice | Adjuvanted vaccine elicited T and B cell responses | (52) |
| Virus | SARS-CoV-2 | Gamma | 25 kGy | Mice | Humoral and cellular immune response, induced neutralizing antibodies | (87) |
| Virus | Vaccinia virus | Gamma | 0-15 kGy | Rabbit | Inactivated virus was immunogenic | (48) |
| Virus | Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Vaccine | Gamma | 80-100 kGy | Guinea Pig | Protective upon challenge | (88) |
| Virus | Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Vaccine | Gamma | 50 kGy | Mice | Protective against subcutaneous challenge and partially protective against aerosol challenge | (89) |
| Virus | White Spot Syndrome Virus | Electron Beam | 13 kGy | Shrimp | Protective upon challenge | (90) |
| Virus | Zaire ebola virus | Gamma | 100 kGy | Nonhuman primate | Not protective upon challenge | (91) |
| Virus | Zaire ebola virus | Gamma | 60 kGy | Nonhuman primate | Not protective upon challenge | (92) |