Table 1.
Characteristics of included ASIs by whether microbiological data were collected
| Study characteristics | Without microbiological data (N = 83), n (%) | With microbiological data (N = 34), n (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Setting | ||
| Primary/community | 52 (62.7) | 7 (20.6) |
| Secondary | 31 (37.3) | 27 (79.4) |
| Centre | ||
| Single centre | 22 (26.5) | 13 (38.2) |
| Multicentre | 61 (73.5) | 21 (61.8) |
| Randomization | ||
| Individual | 44 (53.0) | 30 (88.2) |
| Cluster | 39 (47.0) | 4 (11.8) |
| Targeted population | ||
| Adults only (≥18 years) | 57 (68.7) | 28 (82.4) |
| Children only (<18 years) | 18 (21.7) | 2 (5.9) |
| Both | 4 (4.8) | 3 (8.8) |
| Unknown | 4 (4.8) | 1 (2.9) |
| Country | ||
| Multicounty | 4 (4.8) | 3 (8.8) |
| Single country | 79 (95.3) | 29 (85.3) |
| Europe | 42 (50.6) | 19 (55.9) |
| North America | 12 (14.5) | 6 (17.6) |
| South America | 3 (3.6) | 1 (2.9) |
| Asia | 19 (22.9) | 4 (11.8) |
| Eastern Africa | 1 (1.2) | 0 (0.0) |
| Australia | 2 (2.4) | 1 (2.9) |
| Economic status | ||
| High | 61 (73.5) | 28 (82.4) |
| Upper middle | 15 (18.1) | 5 (14.7) |
| Lower middle | 4 (4.8) | 1 (2.9) |
| Low | 1 (1.2) | 0 (0.0) |
| Mixture of economic statusa | 2 (2.4) | 0 (0.0) |
| Specific infection or diseases targetedb | ||
| No specific infection or diseases targeted | 20 (23.8) | 3 (8.8) |
| Abdominal infection | 0 (0.0) | 3 (8.8) |
| Bacteraemia | 0 (0.0) | 2 (5.9) |
| Respiratory illness or infection | 48 (57.8) | 12 (35.3) |
| Sepsis | 2 (2.4) | 3 (8.8) |
| UTIs | 6 (7.2) | 4 (11.8) |
| Other | 8 (9.6) | 10 (29.4) |
| ASIsc | ||
| Audit and feedback | 26 (31.3) | 4 (11.8) |
| Clinical decision support | 24 (28.9) | 11 (32.4) |
| Delayed prescribing | 5 (6.0) | 1 (2.9) |
| Education | 40 (48.2) | 3 (8.8) |
| Guideline implementation | 3 (3.6) | 4 (11.8) |
| Optimal dosing | 4 (4.8) | 6 (17.6) |
| Biomarker-guided rapid diagnostic testing | 17 (20.5) | 12 (35.3) |
| Microbiological rapid diagnostic testing | 2 (2.4) | 2 (5.9) |
| Restrictive | 2 (2.4) | 2 (5.9) |
| Other | 3 (3.6) | 2 (5.9) |
| Study protocol | ||
| With published study protocol | 21 (25.3) | 4 (11.8) |
| Without published study protocol | 62 (74.7) | 30 (88.2) |
| Unable to identify | 32 (38.6) | 12 (35.3) |
| Attached as supplementary material | 6 (7.2) | 5 (14.7) |
| Summary protocol using the CTR number | 24 (28.9) | 13 (38.2) |
| Year of the primary paper published | ||
| 2009d | 2 (2.4) | 0 (0.0) |
| 2011 | 5 (6.0) | 2 (5.9) |
| 2012 | 1 (1.2) | 2 (5.9) |
| 2013 | 12 (14.5) | 3 (8.8) |
| 2014 | 5 (6.0) | 1 (2.9) |
| 2015 | 8 (9.6) | 6 (17.6) |
| 2016 | 12 (14.5) | 3 (8.8) |
| 2017 | 9 (10.8) | 3 (8.8) |
| 2018 | 11 (13.3) | 5 (14.7) |
| 2019 | 9 (10.8) | 3 (8.8) |
| 2020 | 8 (9.6) | 3 (8.8) |
| 2021 | 1 (1.2) | 3 (8.8) |
| Microbiological outcome | ||
| No | 83 (100.0) | 16 (47.1) |
| Yes | 0 (0.0) | 18 (52.9) |
Two studies were conducted in multiple countries from different economic strata (one study conducted in lower-middle, upper-middle and high countries; one study conducted in lower-middle and upper-middle countries).
Two studies (one study without and one study with microbiological data) targeted multiple infections, one study targeted UTI, abdominal-biliary infection, pneumonia and non-purulent cellulitis, and one study targeted acute respiratory infection and UTI. These two studies were double coded in the relative categories.
Fifty-one studies were multimodal interventions (36 studies without and 15 studies with microbiological data). These 51 studies were double coded in the relative categories.
We have included two secondary analytic papers that were published between 2011 and 2021, but the primary trial paper was published in 2009.