Table 3.
List of studies from the last 10 years investigating the effect of ART-type drugs related to autophagy in cancer cells with information on the model systems used, the ART-type drugs tested and the major findings of the study.
| Cell Lines; Cancer | Drugs | Effects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| K562; Leukemia | DHA | Autophagosome formation↑; LC3-I and LC3-II↑; ROS↑; TfR↓; Cell viability↓ | 2012 [100] |
| Eca109, Ec9706; Esophageal cancer | DHA | Autophagosome formation↑; LC3-I and LC3-II↑ | 2013 [59] |
| Diverse cell lines | DHA | Autophagosome and autolysosome formation↑; LC3-I and LC3-II↑; P62↓; p-IκBα; ROS scavenger 4-Hydroxy-TEMPO (TEMPO) reduces autophagic vacuoles | 2014 [101] |
| BxPC-3, PANC-1; Pancreatic cancer | DHA | Cell growth↓; LC3-1↓; LC3-II↑; 3MA enhances DHA-induced apoptosis; p-JNK↑; Beclin 1↑; ROS↑; JNK inhibitor and beclin-1 siRNA suppress DHA-induced autophagy | 2014 [95] |
| Cal-27; Tongue squamous cell carcinoma | DHA | Cell viability↓; Colony formation↓; Autolysosome formation↑; LC3-II↑; DNA damage↑; Nuclear p-STAT3↓; Beclin-1↑; Tumor growth↓ | 2017 [102] |
| SKOV3; Ovarian cancer | ATS DHA | Cell viability↓; Beclin-1↑; LC3-II↑; Autophagosome formation↑; Cell viability rescued by CQ and BafA1 | 2018 [98] |
| Cholangiocarcinoma | DHA | Cell viability↓; Colony formation↓; LC3-I and LC3-II↑; P62↓; PI3KC1↓; AKT and mTOR↓; BCL-1↓; Vps34↑; Beclin-1↑; Spautin-1 inhibits DHA-induced autophagy and cell death | 2018 [99] |
| Diverse cell lines | DHA-37 | Cell viability↓; Cell viability rescued by autophagy inhibitors CQ, 3-MA or LY294002; LC3-II↑; P62↓; Autolysosome formation↑; HMGB1↑; p-MAPK and P38↑; Tumor growth↓ | 2018 [103] |
| HCT116; Colon cancer | ATS | Cell viability↓; Autolysosome formation↑; Atg5↑; Beclin-1↑; LC3-II↑; Autophagy inhibitor HCQ promotes ATS-induced apoptosis; Tumor growth↓ | 2018 [96] |
| SU-DHL-4, SU-DHL-10, OCI-LY3; Diffuse large B cell lymphoma | SM1044 | Autolysosome formation↑; LC3-II↑; Autophagy inhibitors CQ and BafA1 inhibit DHA-induced apoptosis; p-AMPK↑; ULK1↑; Ceramide↑; Caramide inhibitor S1P and l-cycloserine, the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinases inhibitor STO-609 inhibit AMPK activation; Tumor growth↓ | 2018 [97] |
| HepG2215; Hepatocellular carcinoma | DHA | Cell viability↓; Colony formation↓; DNA damage↑; Autolysosome formation↑; P62↓; LC3-II↑; ROS↑; cell mobility↓; | 2019 [104] |
| HeLa; Cervical cancer | DHA | Cell viability↓; Tumor growth↓; LC3 puncta↑; LC3-II↑; Autolysosome formation↑; ROS↑; γH2AX↑; DNA damage↑; p-mTOR | 2019 [105] |
| Eca109; Esophagus squamous cell carcinoma | DHA | Cell viability↓; Tumor growth↓; ROS↑; LC3 puncta↑; P62↓; LC3-II↑; TRF2↓; NAC reduces LC3 puncta | 2020 [106] |
| Diverse cell lines | DHA | Cell viability↓; Colony formation↓; Tumor growth↓; LC3-II↑; Beclin-1↑; P62↓; Autolysosome formation↑; IFI16↓; Ra1B↓; USP33↓ | 2020 [107] |
| TE-1, Eca109; Esophageal cancer | DHA | Cell migration↓; LC3 puncta↑; LC3↑; P62/SQSTM↓; 3MA or overexpression of Akt restores DHA-suppressed migration; p-AKT and p-mTOR↓; E-cadherin↑; N-cadherin↓; Vimentin↓ | 2020 [108] |
| EJ, T24; Bladder cancer | ATS | Cell viability↓; Cell migration↓; Colony formation↓; Autolysosome formation↑; p-AMPK and p-ULK1↑; p-mTOR↓; LC3-II/I ratio↑; 3MA inhibits ATS-induced apoptosis; AMPK activator enhances ATS-induced autophagy and apoptosis; AMPK inhibitor, 3MA, and NAC suppresses ATS-induced apoptosis; ROS↑ | 2020 [94] |
| BON-1, QGP-1; Pancreatic neuroendocrine cancer | ATS | Cell viability↓; Cell death rescued by 3MA; LC3-II↑; DHA induces apoptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy | 2020 [109] |
| Ishikawa, AN3CA; Endometrial carcinoma | ATS | Cell viability↓; Cell migration↓; CD155↑; P62↓; LC3-II/I ratio↑; ATG5↑; ATS-treated cancer cell triggers NK92 cytotoxicity | 2021 [110] |
| U2932, SU-DHL2, SU-DHL4, SU-DHL6, 293 T; Diffuse large B cell lymphoma | ATS | Cell viability↓; Colony formation↓; Apoptosis↑; P62↓; LC3-II/I ratio↑; Acidic vesicular organelles formation↑; CQ reduces ATS-induced apoptosis; p-STAT3↑; Knockdown of STAT3 enhances ATS-induced autophagy, apoptosis, and ferroptosis; Tumor growth↓ | 2021 [85] |
Arrow “↑” indicates an enhancing effect or upregulation; “↓” indicates a diminishing effect or downregulation.