Table 3.

The variations in contents of nutrients and phytochemicals according to plant growth stages (seeds, sprouts, microgreens, baby leaves, and fully grown).

Family	Species	Secondary Metabolites	Reference
Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus caudatus (foxtail amaranth)	Amaranth sprouts showed significantly higher contents of total flavonoids, rutin, amaranthine, and iso-amaranthine than ungerminated seeds.	[83]
	Amaranthus cruentus (red amaranth)	Amaranth sprouts have a significantly higher antioxidant activity than seeds, which may be a result of the difference in the content of polyphenols, anthocyanins, and other compounds.	[84]
	Amaranthus tricolor (edible amaranth)	(1) Mean protein, Fe and Zn content were considerably higher in amaranth sprouts compared with amaranth microgreens; (2) a substantial increase in vitamin C content from amaranth sprouts to microgreens (2.7-fold) and from amaranth microgreens to fully grown leafy amaranth (2.9-fold); (3) α-carotene and β-carotene were detected in all three growth stages and content increased considerably from sprouts to microgreens.	[45]
	Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa)	Quinoa sprouts have a significantly higher antioxidant activity than seeds.	[84]
	Chenopodium quinoa	Total phenol content and antioxidant activity increase with the sprouting of seeds.	[98]
	Chenopodium quinoa	Sprouts have significantly higher antioxidant capacity values after four days of germination than raw seeds; (2) phenolic content values of 4-day-old sprouts are about 2.6 times higher than seeds.	[99]
	Spinacia oleracea (spinach)	Higher ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol levels in microgreens compared to the mature stage.	[67]
Asteraceae	Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Sprouting increased total phenolic and flavonoid levels, as well as the antioxidant activity compared to ungerminated seeds.	[96]
	Lactuca sativa (lettuce)	Sprouts showed higher amounts of α-tocopherol and carotenoids compared to mature lettuce.	[89]
	Lactuca sativa	The average ratio of ten nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Zn, Na, and Fe) indicated that hydroponically grown lettuce microgreens were 2.7 times more nutrient-rich than mature lettuce.	[104]
	Lactuca sativa var. capitata (butterhead lettuce)	The content of essential minerals such as Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Se, and Mo was higher and nitrate content was lower in lettuce microgreens than in mature lettuces.	[106]
Boraginaceae	Phacelia tanacetifolia (phacelia)	TPC and antioxidant activity were higher in sprouts than in ungerminated seeds.	[80]
Brassicaceae	Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage)	The average ratio of ten nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Zn, Na, and Fe) indicated that hydroponically grown cabbage microgreens were 2.9 times more nutrient-rich than mature cabbage.	[104]
	Brassica oleracea var. capitata	Higher total ascorbic acid, phylloquinone, β-carotene, and glucoraphanin in cabbage microgreens than in mature cabbage.	[95]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli)	(1) Sprouts showed significantly higher polyphenol values than microgreens and baby leaves; (2) high increments of kaempferol and apigenin in broccoli landrace from the seed to the baby leaves growth stage; (3) antioxidant levels were highest in sprouts and tended to decrease with further growth.	[76]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica	Sprouting increased total phenolic and flavonoid levels, as well as the antioxidant activity compared to ungerminated seeds.	[96]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica	Health-promoting phytochemicals are more concentrated in cruciferous sprouts (e.g., broccoli and red radish) than in the adult plant edible organs.	[102]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica	3-day-old broccoli sprouts contained a much higher inducer activity of detoxication enzymes than the corresponding mature vegetable.	[61]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica	Broccoli sprouts showed higher amounts of α-tocopherol and carotenoids compared to mature broccoli.	[89]
	Brassica oleracea var. italica	10-fold higher content of glucobrassicin in broccoli microgreens compared to the mature stage.	[95]
	Brassica oleracea var. acephala (kale)	Sprouts showed significantly higher polyphenol values than microgreens and baby leaves.	[76]
	Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (pak choi)	Decreasing content of 3-butenyl glucosinolates from sprouts to adult leaves.	[49]
	Cichorium intybus (chicory)	Sprouts showed higher amounts of α-tocopherol and carotenoids compared to mature chicory.	[89]
	Eruca sativa (arugula)	Higher content of total ascorbic acid, phylloquinone, and β-carotene in arugula sprouts compared to the mature stage.	[95]
	Raphanus sativus (radish)	Health-promoting phytochemicals are more concentrated in cruciferous sprouts (e.g., broccoli and red radish) than in the respective adult plant edible organs.	[102]
	Raphanus sativus	Sprouting increased total phenolic and flavonoid levels and the antioxidant activity compared to ungerminated seeds; radish (and sunflower) sprouts were the richest in phenolic compounds.	[96]
Fabaceae	Cicer arietinum (chickpea)	Chickpea microgreens contained higher vitamins and higher antioxidant activity than raw seeds and sprouts.	[42]
	Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek)	Higher ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol levels in microgreens compared to the mature stage.	[67]
	Vigna radiata (mungbean)	Sprouting mungbean seeds enhanced vitamin C content 2.7-fold compared to mature mungbean grain.	[92]
	Vigna radiata	Mungbean sprouts showed increased total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TF) contents and higher antioxidant activity (AA) than ungerminated seeds; radish and sunflower sprouts were superior to mungbean sprouts regarding TPC, TF, and AA levels.	[96]
	Vigna radiata	The total phenolics and vitamins content increased in the sequence of raw seeds, sprouts, and microgreens.	[42]
	Glycine max (soybean)	(1) Isoflavones were found at high concentrations in soybean sprouts and could easily provide the recommended anticarcinogenic dose range from 1.5 to 2.0 mg/kg of body weight per day; (2) The vegetable soybean stage was nutritionally superior to soybean sprouts in terms of the content of protein (14% increase), Zn (45%), Ca (72%), and Fe (151%).	[92]
Linaceae	Linum usitatissimum (flaxseed)	Microgreens exhibited a higher chlorophyll (+62.6%), carotenoid (+24.4%), and phenol content (+37.8%), as well as higher antioxidant capacity (+25.1%) than sprouts.	[103]
Malvaceae	Hibiscus sabdariffa (roselle)	Higher ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol levels in microgreens compared to the mature stage.	[67]