Table 2.
Summary of the main findings of the studies on adsorbents and their combinations, as well as toxin-binding premixes in aflatoxin (AF) mitigation.
| Adsorbents | In Vitro | In Vivo | Animal Health Status/Zootechnical Parameters | Other Experiments |
Remarks | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AF Adsorption/Binding | Antifungal Activity | Ruminal Fermentation Parameters | AF Degradation/Reduction in Animals 1 | Carryover/Transfer Rate | Reduction in AF Excretion 2 | Blood (Plasma) Parameters 3 | Performance, e.g., Milk Yield, Feed Intake, Milk Composition | General Health Status | Immune Status | ||||
| Alam et al. (2015) [32] | Smectite | ++ | Effects of glucose and ethanol on AFB1 adsorption by smectites; at least 90% of the smectites’ AFB1 adsorption capacity was preserved even with high concentrations of ethanol and glucose | ||||||||||
| Antonelo et al. (2017) [33] | Smectite | ++ | Linear toxin dose effect | ||||||||||
| Maki et al. (2016a) [34] | Calcium montmorillonite | ++ | ++ | 0 | 0 | Dose-dependent reduction of the AFM1 concentration | |||||||
| Maki et al. (2016b) [35] | Calcium montmorillonite | ++ | ++ | ++ | 0 | 0 | Dose-dependent reduction of the AFM1 concentration | ||||||
| Pate et al. (2018) [36] | Aluminosilicate clay | ++ | 0 | ||||||||||
| Sulzberger et al. (2017) [37] | Clay-containing vermiculite, nontronite and montmorillonite | + | + | + | + | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Soufiani et al. (2016) [38] | Activated montmorillonite clay/nonactivated montmorillonite clay/commercially available clay binder (G.Bind) | +/+/++ | +/+/++ | ||||||||||
| Akhtar et al. (2016) [39] | Glucomannan/hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCAS)/activated charcoal | ++/+/+ | ++/+/+ | ||||||||||
| Jiang et al. (2014) [40] | Bamboo charcoal/smectite | ++/+ | ++/++ | ||||||||||
| Rojo et al. (2014) [41] | Aluminosilicate adsorbents/yeast cell wall glucomannan | ++/+ | ++/+ | ||||||||||
| Kissel et al. (2012) [42] | Glucomannan and aluminosilicate blend/modified glucomannan/Alltech product (ingredients not specified in the study)/sodium bentonite | 0/0/++ | |||||||||||
| Jiang et al. (2018) [43] | Bentonite clay/bentonite clay with a Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation product | +/+ | +/+ | + | + | ||||||||
| Weatherly et al. (2018) [44] | Yeast fractions and bentonite | + | 0 | 0 | + | 0 | A quadratic trend was observed for AFB1 presence in faeces | ||||||
| Ramales-Valderrama et al. (2016) [45] | Pyracantha koidzumii biomasses (leaves/berries/mixture of leaves and berries) | ++/+/++ | According to the analysis of zeta (or electrokinetic) potential, the authors concluded that the interaction type between aflatoxins and the biosorbent is primarily electrostatic. According to FTIR analysis, hydroxyl, amine, carboxyl, amide, phosphate and ketone groups are likely responsible for biosorption of AFB1 molecules | ||||||||||
| Naseer et al. (2018) [46] | Garlic (Allium sativum L.)/clove (Syzygium aromaticum)/neem (Azadirachta indica) | +/+/+ | According to the results of feed sample analyses (n = 74), in the mycotoxin-contaminated concentrate feed samples, the highest frequency of Aspergillus (43.3%) was observed. Out of 29 Aspergilli, maximum frequency (72.4%) of A. flavus was recorded, followed by A. parasiticus (13.7%), A. fumigates (6.8%) and A. niger (6.8%). Out of the total 74 concentrate feed samples collected, 67 samples had > 20 ppb of AFB1 | ||||||||||
| Fani-Makki et al. (2018) [47] | Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) seeds | ++ | The mechanism by which MT seeds decrease AFB1 is not fully understood. The presence of fibre in the seeds acting as adsorbents, silymarin, a natural polyphenolic flavonoid, and polyunsaturated fatty acids may also contribute to the beneficial characteristics regarding aflatoxin diminishing | ||||||||||
| Rychen et al. (2016) [48] | Algae interspaced bentonite | ++ | |||||||||||
| Xiong et al. (2018) [49] | Solis mos (sodium montmorillonite, live yeast, yeast culture, mannan oligosaccharide and vitamin E) | ++ | ++ | ++ | 0 | ||||||||
| Xiong et al. (2015) [50] | Solis mos (sodium montmorillonite, live yeast, yeast culture, mannan oligosaccharide and vitamin E) | + | ++ | ++ | ++ | + | No effect was detected when the adsorbent was added to the diet containing a higher level of AFB1 | ||||||
| Jovaisiene et. al. (2016) [51] | Mycofix Plus 3.E (mineral components, biological constituent, live organism, phytogenic substances, phycophytic constituents) | 0/+ | + | Decrease in urea in the treatment groups, but other biochemistry data showed no change. Non-significant change in the immunity status | |||||||||
| Aslam et al. (2016) [52] | 50/50% mixture of Mycofix Secure (bentonite/dioctahedral montmorillonite) and Mycofix Plus (bentonite/dioctahedral montmorillonite, Biomin BBSH 797, Biomin MTV (Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans DSM 14153), phytophytic (Ascophyllum nodosum) and phytogenic (silymarin) substances) | + | + | ||||||||||
| Naveed et al. (2018) [53] | Fixar Viva/Mycosorb/T5X (ingredients not specified) | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | ||||||||
| Ullah et al. (2016) [54] | Toxfin (sepiolite, bentonite and companion clays)/Elitox (enzymes, HSCAS, biopolymers, vitamin C and natural extracts) | ++ | + | ||||||||||
| Ogunade et al. (2016) [55] | Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation product containing a low or high dose of a chlorophyll-based additive/or a low dose of a chlorophyll-based additive and sodium bentonite clay | 0 | 0 | 0 | ++/+/+ | When AFB1 was withdrawn from the diet, AFM1 concentrations decreased rapidly in the treatment groups, such that they fell below the FDA action level within 24 h, whereas it took 48 h in case of the control group (only the toxin) | |||||||
Legend: ++—significant; +—not significant or not indicated in the study; 0—no change; empty cell—not examined. Different results for different food additives examined in the same study are separated with “/”. 1 Parameters such as aflatoxin levels in blood, urine, faeces, milk. 2 Generally calculated from the AFM1 concentration and milk yield. 3 Including liver and kidney functions (if measured).