Table 2.
Modulatory Mechanisms of Phytochemicals used to Treat PD Based on in-silico Computational Predictions and Reported in-vitro and in-vivo Studies.
| Compound Names | Compound Natural Sources | In-Silico Anti-inflammatory Prediction | Modulatory Mechanism of Microglia Polarization | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pa | Pi | In-Vitro | In-Vivo | ||
| Capsaicin | Capsicum | 0.266 | 0.196 | - | Elevation of the expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor alpha [CNTFRα] [103] Reduction of NO, iNOS, and IL-6 expressions, and elevation of Arg-1 and macrophage mannose receptor (CD206) [104] Reduction of TNF-α and IL-1β expressions [105] |
| α-asarone | Acorus tatarinowii | 0.592 | 0.033 | Inhibition of NF-κB [106] | Inhibition of NF-κB [106] |
| Galangin | Alpinia officinarum | 0.689 | 0.017 | Inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways [107] Inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and COX-2 through JNK and NF-κB pathways [108] |
Inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and COX-2 through JNK and NF-κB pathways [108] |
| Biochanin A | Legume plants | 0.588 | 0.034 | Inhibition of TNF-α and IL-1β through MAPK pathway [109] | Inhibition of TNF-α and IL-1β through MAPK pathway [109] |
| Baicalein | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | 0.674 | 0.019 | Inhibition of TNF-α and IL-6 through MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways [110] | Suppression of NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD pathway [101] |
| Apocynin | Picrorhiza kurroa | 0.496 | 0.058 | - | Inhibition of STAT1 and NF-κB pathways [111] |
| α-Mangostin | Mangosteen pericarp | 0.694 | 0.017 | Inhibition of NF-κB pathway [112] | Reduction of IL-6 and COX-2 [113] |
| Myricetin | Turbinaria ornata | 0.720 | 0.013 | Inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways [114] | Inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways [114] |
| Myricitrin | Myrica cerifera | 0.762 | 0.009 | - | Suppression of TNF-α [115] |
| Icariin | Herba epimedii | 0.732 | 0.012 | Reduction of TNF- α, IL-1β and NO through inhibition of NF-κB pathway [116] | Reduction of TNF- α, IL-1β and NO through inhibition of NF-κB pathway [116] |
| Nobiletin | Citrus fruits | 0.694 | 0.017 | Suppression of TNF-α, IL-1β and NO through inhibition of NF-κB pathway [117] | Attenuation of IL-1β production [118] |
| Tenuigenin | Polygala tenuifolia | 0.841 | 0.005 | Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome and downregulation of caspase-1, pro-IL-1β, and IL-1β [102] | Suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome [102] |
| Tanshinone I | Radix salviae miltiorrhizae | 0.515 | 0.053 | Suppression of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β [119] | Attenuation of the increase of TNF-α, and reserving the increase of IL-10 [119] |
| Salvianolic acid B | Salviae miltiorrhizae | 0.313 | 0.149 | Reduction of TNF-α, IL-1β and NO productions [120] | Attenuation of the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, and NO [120] |
| Licochalcone E | Glycyrrhiza inflata | 0.523 | 0.050 | Activation of Nrf2/ARE-dependent pathway [107] | Activation of Nrf2/ARE-dependent pathway [107] |
| Licochalcone A | Glycyrrhiza inflata | 0.740 | 0.011 | Inhibition of ERK1/2 and NF-κB p65 through reduction of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expressions [121] | Inhibition of ERK1/2 and NF-κB p65 through reduction of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expressions [121] |
| Isobavachalcone | Psoralea corylifolia | 0.778 | 0.008 | Inhibition of NF-κB pathway through inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-10 [122] | Reduction of IL-6 and IL-1β expressions [122] |
| Macelignan | Myristica fragrans | 0.352 | 0.121 | Suppression of MAPKs and NF-kB via the regulation of IkB [123] | Activation of PPAR-γ [124] |
| Ginsenoside Rg1 | Panax ginseng | 0.801 | 0.007 | Inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways through attenuation of TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2 mRNA and protein levels [125] | Inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways through reduction of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 [126] |
| Tripchlorolide | Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F | 0.791 | 0.007 | Attenuation of TNF-α, IL-1β, NO, iNOS, PGE2, and COX-2 [127] | - |
| Triptolide | Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F | 0.698 | 0.016 | Downregulation of NO, iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-1β [128] | - |
| Naringin | Grapefruit, Citrus fruits | 0.700 | 0.016 | - | Inhibition of IL-1β [129] Attenuation of TNF-α [130] |
NA: not applicable.