Table 2.

Summary of cell membrane-based nanotherapeutics for targeted drug delivery.

Target Disease	Cell Membrane Isolated from	Core Nanoparticle	Drug/Surface Modification	Strategy	Ref
Cancer
Breast cancer	MCF-7	MOF	CRISPR/Cas9	Homologous tumor targeting	[1]
	MDA-MB-231	Rare-earth doped nanoparticle	-	Homologous tumor targeting Tumor imaging in NIR-II window	[5]
	4T1	MnO2-coated MOF	Apatinib	Homologous tumor targeting Introducing photosensitive porphyrinic into MOF for enhanced PDT	[6]
	RBC and MCF-7	Melanin nanoparticle	-	Prolonged circulation half-life and homotypic tumor targeting Generating hyperthermia to increase PTT efficacy	[2]
	Fibroblasts activated with TGF-β1	Semiconducting polymer nanoparticle		Targeting cancer-associated fibroblasts Generating NIR fluorescence and photoacoustic signals for imaging Generating singlet oxygen and heat for combined PDT and PTT	[7]
	MCF-7	MSN	DOX and MPH	Homologous tumor targeting High drug loading	[19]
	RBC	Magnetic MSN	HB	Prolonged circulation High drug loading Tumor accumulation via magnetic navigation for improved PDT	[3]
	RBC	Semiconducting polymer nanoparticle	-	Prolonged circulation Photoacoustic imaging and PTT	[74]
	Macrophage	pH-sensitive nanoparticle	PTX/IGF1R-targeting ligand	Membrane-derived tumor homing Improved intracellular uptake by decorated with the IGF1R targeting ligand H+-adsorbing proton sponge effect accelerating endosomal escape of the nanoparticle Controlled drug release in the acidic intracellular environment	[42]
	4T1	MOF	TPZ	Homologous tumor targeting High drug loading in porous coordination network of MOF ROS generation under light irradiation	[75]
	RBC	MOF	ICG and oxygen	Prolonged circulation Facilitating O2 release from MOF by converting NIR light into heat O2-evolving PDT	[4]
	Natural killer cell	PLGA nanoparticle	TCPP	Tumor targeting via interactions between NKG2D and DNAX accessory molecule 1 Photosensitizer delivery for improved PDT Cascade immunotherapy	[76]
	Platelet	MOF	Survivin siRNA	Tumor targeting High siRNA loading and minimal toxicity	[17]
Cervical carcinoma	RBC	PEG-b-PDLLA nanoparticle	PTX dimer and TPC	Prolonged circulation Generating ROS under light irradiation for PDT and for triggering on-demand PTX release for chemotherapy	[77]
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC)	HNSCC patient-derived tumor cell	Gelatin nanoparticle	Cisplatin (Pt)	Homologous tumor targeting	[78]
	Platelet and NHSCC cancer stem cell	Iron oxide nanoparticle	-	Homologous tumor targeting of cancer stem cell membrane Immune evasion of platelet membrane Optical adsorption ability and magnetic properties for PTT and MRI	[20]
Oral squamous cancer	KB	Gold nanorod		Homologous tumor targeting Perinuclear accumulation Combination of photothermal therapy and radiotherapy	[79]
Melanoma	CD80-overexpressing B16	PLGA nanoparticle	-	Promoting activation of the cognate T cells	[13]
	OVA-expressing B16	PLGA nanoparticle	R837/Mannose modification	Vaccination with enhanced intracellular uptake by antigen-presenting cells by mannose modification Checkpoint blockade therapy	[15]
	Myeloid-derived suppressor cell	Iron oxide nanoparticle		Homologous tumor targeting and immune escape PTT-induced tumor-killing PTT-mediated antitumor response	[21]
Glioma	RBC	Drug crystal	DTX/modified with tumor-targeting peptide c	High drug loading Prolonged blood circulation Active tumor targeting	[80]
Colorectal carcinoma	RBC	MOF	GOx, TPZ	Prolonged blood circulation Tumor hypoxia by GOx-based starvation therapy Starvation-activated TPZ activation	[22]
Vascular related disease
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV)	RBC-REC	PLGA nanoparticle	-	Reducing phagocytosis by macrophages using RBC membranes Improved accumulation in CNV regions using REC membranes Neutralizing VEGF by inheriting VEGF receptors of REC membranes	[70]
Peripheral vessel disease (PVD)	CXCR4-overexpressed hASC	PLGA nanoparticle	VEGF	Reduced phagocytosis and promoted penetration across inflamed endothelial barrier using engineered cell membrane Targeted VEGF delivery to ischemic injury	[81]
Stroke	CXCR4-overexpressed NSC	PLGA nanoparticle	Glyburide	Chemotactic interaction with SDF-1, enriched in the ischemic microenvironment Targeted delivery of the anti-edema agent, glyburide for stroke treatment	[12]
Atherosclerosis	Platelet	PLGA nanoparticle	Gadolinium	Atherosclerosis targeting Live detection of atherosclerotic sites by MRI imaging	[82]
	Platelet	PAAO-UCNP	Ce6 photosensitizer	Atherosclerosis targeting ROS-induced apoptosis by SPECT/CT-guided PDT	[41]
	RAW 264.7	PLGA nanoparticle	Rapamycin	Inhibiting phagocytosis Atherosclerosis-targeted drug delivery	[83]
Inflammation
Lung inflammation	VLA-4-expressed leukemia cell	PLGA nanoparticle	DEX	Enhanced affinity to target inflamed endothelial cells via VCAM-1 and VLA-4 interaction Anti-inflammatory drug delivery to inflamed sites	[14]
Gout	Macrophage	MOF	Uricase	High-yield enzyme loading Inflammation-targeted enzyme delivery Inflammatory cytokine-neutralization	[11]
Rheumatoid arthritis	Neutrophil	PLGA nanoparticle		Decoying neutrophil-targeted biological molecules Neutralizing pro-inflammatory cytokines Increased penetration into the cartilage matrix	[84]
Infection
Skin infection by streptococcus	RBC	PLGA and chitosan nanoparticles		Toxin neutralization Prolonged retention by forming a gel-like complex	[85]
Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus infection	RBC	pH-sensitive nanogel	Vancomycin	Toxin neutralization Redox-responsive antibiotics delivery	[35]
Bacterial infectious disease	E. coli	Gold nanoparticle		Anti-bacterial vaccination Targeted activation of dendritic cells in lymph nodes, triggering subsequent immune responses	[60]
Human immunodeficiency virus infection	SUP-T1, a human T lymphoblast cell line	PLGA nanoparticle		Viral targeting via CD4 receptor and CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors Decoying T cell-targeted virus, blocking viral entry and infection	[86]

MOF, metal-organic framework; RBC, red blood cell; NK, natural killer; ASC, adipose-derived stem cell; NSC, neural stem cell; PDT, photodynamic therapy; PTT, photothermal therapy; NIR, near-infrared; MSN, mesoporous nanoparticle; DOX, doxorubicin; MPH, mefuparib hydrochloride; HB, hypocrellin B; PTX, paclitaxel; TPZ, tirapazamine; ICG, indocyanine; TCPP, 4,4′,4′′,4′′′-(porphine-5,10,15,20-tetrayl) tetrakis (benzoic acid); PEG-b-PDLLA, methoxypoly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(D,L-lactide); OVA, ovalbumin; DTX, docetaxel; GOx, glucose oxidase; REC, retinal endotheliocyte; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; CXCR4, C-X-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 4; SDF-1, stromal cell derived factor 1; PAAO-UCNP, lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) incorporated into polyacrylic acid-n-octylamine (PAAO) micelles; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SPECT/CT, single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography; VLA-4, very late antigen-4; DEX, dexamethasone; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; CCR5, C-C chemokine receptor type 5.