Table 4. Subgroup analysis of the pooled prevalence of CKD stage 3–5 in low- and middle-income countries in Asia.

Subgroup	Pooled prevalence (95% CI)	I2, p-value	p-value for difference
Geographical subregion in Asia
East Asia	8.64 (7.17–10.24)	99.94%, <0.001	0.039
Southeast Asia	11.95 (7.71–16.95)	99.80%, <0.001
Western Asia	13.09 (8.68–18.25)	99.71%, <0.001
South Asia	13.51 (9.54–18.05)	99.84%, <0.001
Economic group (classified by the World Bank)
Upper-middle income countries	9.82 (8.30–11.46)	99.94%, <0.001	<0.001
Lower-middle income countries	13.83 9.93–18.26)	99.83%, <0.001
Low income countries	6.44 (5.67–7.25)	N/A, <0.001
Study design
Cross-sectional study	11.42 (9.45–13.55)	99.97%, <0.001	0.378
Cohort study	8.24 (3.06–15.61)	99.82%, <0.001
Methods for measurement of eGFR
CKD-EPI	10.87 (7.76–14.43)	99.98%, <0.001	<0.001
MDRD 186	12.27 (9.33–15.55)	99.66%, <0.001
eMDRD 175	10.33 (7.70–13.30)	99.88%, <0.001
Cockcroft-Gault	19.69 (16.14–23.49)	N/A, <0.001
Not reported	10.20 (6.63–14.43)	99.31%, <0.001
Quality of study
High-quality study	10.98 (8.24–14.07)	99.96%, <0.001	0.836
Moderate-quality study	11.37 (9.24–13.70)	99.92%, <0.001
Gender of study populations
Male	9.09 (7.08–11.31)	99.87%, <0.001	0.563
Female	9.98 (7.94–12.23)	99.84%, <0.001
Proportions of hypertension patients in study populations
≤ 36.9%	9.37 (7.63–11.27)	99.92%, <0.001	0.055
> 36.9%	14.07 (10.72–17.79)	99.88%, <0.001
Not reported	10.48 (3.95–19.64)	99.98%, <0.001
Proportions of diabetes patients in study populations
≤ 8.1%	6.41 (4.82–8.21)	99.91%, <0.001	<0.001
> 8.1%	14.11 (11.65–16.77)	99.86%, <0.001
Not reported	10.95 (5.11–18.64)	99.98%, <0.001

* estimated prevalence calculated using random-effect models; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; CKD, chronic kidney disease; EPI, epidemiology collaboration equation; MDRD₁₈₆, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study with constant factor of 186; eMDRD₁₇₅, estimated Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study with constant factor of 175