Table 4.
Associations of changes in loneliness with changes in family/friend contacts and social participation mode during the COVID-19 outbreak: Results from generalized linear models with Poisson and log link
| More lonely vs. same/less lonely AOR (95% CI) |
||
|---|---|---|
| In-person contact with family/friends: vs. No change | ||
| Increased | 1.03 (0.57–1.77) | |
| Decreased | 1.42 (1.17–1.73)** | |
| Telephone contact with family/friends | ||
| Increased | 0.85 (0.59–1.23) | |
| Decreased | 1.12 (0.87–1.44) | |
| Email/text/social media | ||
| Increased | 1.12 (0.78–1.59) | |
| Decreased | 0.91 (0.71–1.18) | |
| Video calls with family/friends | ||
| Increased | 1.30 (1.01–1.66)* | |
| Decreased | 1.06 (0.76–1.46) | |
| Paid work during COVID: vs. No paid work | ||
| Worked online | 0.96 (0.62–1.48) | |
| Worked in-person | 0.53 (0.29–0.96)* | |
| Volunteered during COVID: vs. Did not volunteer | ||
| Volunteered online | 0.73 (0.47–1.11) | |
| Volunteered in-person | 0.86 (0.58–1.27)* | |
| Attended religious services: vs. Did not attend | ||
| Attended online | 1.20 (0.94–1.52) | |
| Attended in-person | 0.93 (0.65–1.33) | |
| Participated in clubs, classes, other organized activities: vs. Did not participate | ||
| Participated online | 1.36 (1.04–1.77)* | |
| Participated in-person | 1.17 (0.80–1.72) | |
| Age group: vs. 70–74 years | ||
| 75–79 | 0.83 (0.66–1.05) | |
| 80–84 | 0.78 (0.63–0.96)* | |
| 85+ | 0.84 (0.62–1.14) | |
| Female vs. male | 1.53 (1.18–1.99)** | |
| Race/ethnicity: vs. Non-Hispanic White | ||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 0.62 (0.44–0.86)** | |
| Hispanic | 0.68 (0.40–1.13) | |
| Other | 0.81 (0.42–1.53) | |
| Marital status: vs. Married/partnered | ||
| Divorced/separated | 1.68 (1.31–2.15)*** | |
| Widowed | 1.26 (1.01–1.57)* | |
| Never married | 0.62 (0.24–1.59) | |
| Income: vs. Up to $29,999 | ||
| $30,000-$42,999 | 1.25 (0.92–1.70) | |
| $43,000-$65,999 | 1.14 (0.80–1.62) | |
| $66,000-$99,999 | 1.42 (1.00–2.01) | |
| $100,000+ | 1.50 (1.07–2.10)* | |
| Residential care vs. In the community | 1.28 (1.02–1.60)* | |
| No. people in social network | 1.09 (1.01–1.19)* | |
| No. of chronic medical conditions | 1.07 (0.99–1.15) | |
| No. of ADLs received help | 0.91 (0.79–1.05) | |
| No. of IADL received help | 1.05 (0.98–1.13) | |
| Depression score, M (SE) | 1.15 (1.07–1.24) | |
| Anxiety score, M (SE) | 1.17 (1.09–1.26) | |
| N=2,908 | ||
*
p<.05;
**
p<.01;
***
p<.001