Table 1.

Modification and location-specific roles of HMGB1 in sepsis

Cell category	Modification	Effects	Intracellular or extracellular functions
Monocyte/macrophage	Phosphorylation	Translocation from nucleus to cytoplasm	Promote inflammation [64, 65]
Monocyte/macrophage	Acetylation	Translocation from nucleus to cytoplasm, delivery of LPS into the cytoplasm	Increase cytokines and chemokine production, induce autophagy and pyroptosis and inhibit macrophage cell death from endotoxemia [75]
Monocyte/macrophage	Reduced	Delivery of LPS into the cytoplasm	Promote chemotaxis [53]
Monocyte/macrophage	Disulfide	Promote inflammation response [54]	–
Hepatocyte	Phosphorylation	Translocation from nucleus to cytoplasm	Promote inflammation [79]
Hepatocyte	Acetylation	Translocation from nucleus to cytoplasm	Stabilize nucleus and mitochondria and induce inflammasome activation [67]
Hepatocyte	Reduced	Activate inflammasome [107]	–
Vascular endothelial cells	–	–	Increase inflammation response and interrupt endothelial integrity [55]
Platelet	–	–	Activate platelets in sepsis and thrombosis in trauma [76]