Table 2.
Bivariate generalized linear mixed modeling (GLMM) analysis of factors associated with at least daily opioid use among 3813 people who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada, 2006–2018.
| Characteristic | Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | p-value |
|---|---|---|
| Age (per year older) | 0.97 (0.96 to 0.98) | <0.001 |
| Gender (women/other vs. men) | 2.02 (1.62 to 2.51) | <0.001 |
| White | 1.02 (0.82 to 1.26) | 0.893 |
| HIV seropositivea | 0.38 (0.30 to 0.47) | <0.001 |
| Childhood trauma | 1.28 (1.00 to 1.63) | 0.049 |
| Education, high school or greater | 0.97 (0.78 to 1.19) | 0.746 |
| Homelessnessa | 2.29 (2.10 to 2.51) | <0.001 |
| Incarcerationa | 2.05 (1.82 to 2.31) | <0.001 |
| Sex worka | 2.70 (2.32 to 3.14) | <0.001 |
| Violencea | 1.47 (1.33 to 1.62) | <0.001 |
| Daily cannabis usea | 0.72 (0.65 to 0.81) | <0.001 |
| Daily benzodiazepine usea | 3.13 (1.86 to 5.25) | <0.001 |
| Daily crack usea | 2.75 (2.48 to 3.04) | <0.001 |
| Daily cocaine usea | 2.59 (2.22 to 3.02) | <0.001 |
| Daily methamphetamine usea | 3.25 (2.82 to 3.74) | <0.001 |
| Heavy alcohol usea | 0.70 (0.61 to 0.80) | <0.001 |
| Barriers to accessing treatmenta | 1.83 (1.57 to 2.13) | <0.001 |
| Enrolled in drug treatmenta | ||
| Opioid agonist therapy (vs. none) | 0.44 (0.40 to 0.49) | <0.001 |
| Other drug/alcohol treatment (vs. none) | 0.47 (0.41 to 0.54) | <0.001 |
a
In the last six months.