Table 2.
3D culture systems of reproductive cells and tissue fragments in vitro.
| Reproductive cell culture and transplantation | Biomaterials and cells/tissue fragments | Highlights | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| In vitro spermatogenesis | PLGA hydrogel (SD rat testicular cells) | Provide a favorable environment for spermatogenic germ cells to proliferate and differentiate into mature spermatids | [27] |
| Collagen gel matrix (human testicular cells) | Culture of spermatogenic cells from nonobstructive azoospermic patients to produce germ cells | [39] | |
| Agarose gels (mouse testicular tissue fragments, gas–liquid interphase) | Successfully reconstituted mouse sperm in vitro maintained over 2 months | [79,80] | |
| Alginate-based bioprinted scaffolds (mouse prepubertal testicular cells) | Successful in-vitro spermatogenesis in 80% of cultivated prepubertal tissue fragments in 3D-printed hydrogel scaffold | [84] | |
| Collagen IV-alginate microspheres (mouse ESCs) | Producing mature germ cells from mouse ESCs differentiation | [85] | |
| Matrigel (Sprague Dawley rat testicular cells) |
Generate testicular organoids with a functional BTB |
[41,42] |
|
| In vitro follicle culture | Hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel (mouse preantral follicles) | Support follicle growth, estradiol secretion and resumption of meiosis in 3D culture | [29] |
| 3D-printed microporous gelatin scaffolds (secondary follicles from 16-day-old mice) | Producing normal levels of hormones | [30] | |
| Alginate-based hydrogel (microencapsulation of rat ovarian cells) | Achieve stable secretion of hormones during 90 days | [34] | |
| Collagen-based hydrogel (ovarian follicles from rats) | Type I collagen hydrogel under different environmental stresses affect development of ovarian follicles | [51] | |
| Fibrin-based hydrogel (mouse primordial and primary ovarian follicles) | Transplantation into adult mice to obtain live births | [57] | |
| Fibrin-based hydrogel (ovarian tissue from young mice) | VEGF-loaded hydrogel promoted angiogenesis and enhanced engraftment and function of the tissue | [58] | |
| Cross-linked hydrogel of 4-arm PEG and difunctional peptide (immature secondary follicles from 14- to 15-day-old mice) | Synthetic hydrogels with tunable properties; support a 17-fold volumetric expansion of follicles | [92] | |
| Fibrin–alginate matrices (two-layered secondary follicles from young mice) | The rate of producing competent oocytes raised to 82% | [129,130] |