Table 3.
Viral antagonism to autophagy.
| Virus | Viral Protein | Mechanism | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Poliovirus | 2BC, 3A | Induces LC3 lipidation and double-membraned vesicle formation for replication | [36,85] |
| HRAS-like suppressor 3 (PLA2G16) | Escapes autophagic degradation by evading detection of its genome-containing endosomes | [36,86] | |
| Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) | RdRP NS5B | Binds Atg5 | [36] |
| NS4B | Induces UVRAG and Rubicon to enhance autophagic flux temporarily | ||
| Unknown | Targets host IRGM to fragment the Golgi apparatus | ||
| Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) | VP1 capsid protein | Associates with p62 to use autophagosomes after the initial induction of autophagy | [36,87] |
| Zika Virus (ZIKV) | NS4A/4B | Inhibit AKT phosphorylation and mTOR activation | [36,88] |
| Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) | ORF3a | Binds to VPS39 and inhibits recruitment of Rab7 and the subsequent assembly of the SNARE complex, preventing autophagosome fusion with the lysosome | [89,90] |
| Human Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) |
ICP34.5 | Inhibits Beclin 1 | [36] |
| Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) | TRS1, IRS1 | Inhibits Beclin 1 | [36,82] |
| Kaposi’s Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV) | vBcl-2 | Inhibits Beclin 1 | [84] |
| vFLIP | Blocks Atg3 E2 enzyme and the lipidation of LC3 | ||
| Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV-1) | Nef | Inhibits Beclin 1 | [36,91] |