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. 2022 Mar 3;5:24. doi: 10.1038/s41746-022-00566-0

Table 2.

Overview of studies included in the systematic review.

Data Env L/R/O Author Year Country # Trials # Subjects Task Data source Accuracy
K B L King et al.58 2009 UK 7 7 Laparoscopic tissue dissection task Body sensor network glove Not specified
K B L Oropesa et al.59 2013 Spain, Norway, Netherlands 126 42 Grasp and place (one hand), Coordinated pulling, Grasp and transfer TrEndo tracking system 71.7–78.2%
K B L Weede et al.60 2014 Namibia, Germany 384 96 Knot tying NDI (EM) aurora tracking system Not specified
K B L French et al.61 2017 US 295 Pool of 98 Peg transfer, Suturing, Circle cutting EDGE, custom box trainer 2 class: 82.5–87.2%; 3-class: 58.9–65.1%
K B L Dockter et al.62 2017 US 91 Pool of 98 Peg transfer, Suturing, Circle cutting EDGE, custom box trainer 97%
K B L Uemura et al.63 2018 Japan 38; 29 28; 29 Suturing Magnetic tracking sensor on tip of instrument 79%
K B L Oquendo et al.64 2018 US, Germany 63 32 Suturing Ascension trakSTAR 3D EM motion-tracking system 89%
K B L Kowalewski et al.65 2019 Germany 99 (knot tying) 28 Suturing, knot tying Myo armband MAE OSATS score: 3.7 ± 0.6
K B O Ahmidi et al.66 2012 US 378 20 Endoscopic sinus surgery tasks EM tracker to record endoscope and tool motion. Eye gaze tracker. 88.6–94.6%
K B O Watson67 2014 US 48 24 Benchtop Venous anastomosis Inertial measurement unit 70–83%
K B O Sun et al.68 2017 Canada 12 6 Hand tying Imperial College Surgical Assessment Device 100%
K B O Nguyen et al.69 2019 Australia 75, 103 15 Open Suturing, Needle passing, Knot tying 2 wearable inertial processor unit sensors; da Vinci Robot 98.40%
K B R Varadarajan et al.70 2009 US 30 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot up to 86%
K B R Reiley et al71 2009 US 57 9 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 95–100%
K B R Tao et al.72 2012 US 101 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOUO 26.9–59.0% LOSO 94.4–97.4%
K B R Kumar et al.73 2012 US 176 12 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 76.3–83.3%
K B R Ahmidi et al.74 2013 US 39; 110 8; 18 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 91.10%
K B R Forestier et al.75 2017 France 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOSO: SU 93.7%, NP 81.1%, KT 92.5% LOUO: SU 88.3%, NP 75.3%, KT 89.8%
K B R Brown et al.76 2017 US 114 38 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 51.7–75%
K B R Zia et al77 2018 US 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot Not specified
K B R Wang et al.78 2018 US 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOSO SU 92.5%, NP 95.4%, and KT 91.3%,
K B R Wang et al.79 2018 US 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOSO 96%
K B R Fard et al.80 2018 US 75 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOSO KT 82.3% SU 89.9% LOUO KT 77.9% SU 79.8%
K B R Ershad et al.81 2019 US 84 14 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 91.05% ± 4.02%
K B R Fawaz et al.32 2019 France 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot NP 100% SU 100% KT 93.2%
K B R Anh et al.82 2020 Australia 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot LOSO: 90.17–95.63%
K B R Khalid et al.83 2020 US 103 8 Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot RMSE Precision 97%; Recall 98%; RMSE OSATS Precision 77% Recall 78%
K B R Brown et al.28 2020 US 740 Not specified Suturing, Manipulation, transection, dissection, Needle passing, Knot tying da Vinci Robot 80–98%
K B R Jiang et al.84 2017 China 10 10 Peg transfer Micro Hand S robotic system Not specified
K R R Hung et al.18 2018 US 78 9 Radical Prostatectomy da Vinci robot 87.20% predicting LOS
K R R Chen et al.19 2020 US 68 17 Needle handling/targeting, needle driving, suture cinching da Vinci robot 77.40%
K R O Ahmidi et al.23 2015 US 86 Not specified Septoplasty EM sensor on Cottle elevator 91%
K S O Megali et al.39 2006 Italy 16 6 Simple surgical tasks LapSim Basic Skills 1.5 simulator Not specified
K S O Ahmidi et al.85 2012 US 60 20 Endoscopic sinus surgery tasks Nasal surgery simulator 93%
K S O Poursartip et al.14 2017 Canada 26 26 Shoulder arthroscopy Shoulder arthroscopy simulator 70–95%
K S O Topalli et al.86 2019 Turkey 1260 28 Manipulation tasks Computer-based simulator 86%
K S O Winkler-Schwartz et al.87 2019 Canada 250 50 Neurosurgical tumor resection VR based training platform 90%
K S O Peng et al.88 2019 China 420 14 Peg transfer VR based training platform 96.39%
K S O Siyar et al.89 2020 Iran, Canada 115 115 Neurosurgical tumor resection task VR based training platform 86–90%
K S O Mirchi et al.16 2020 Canada 21 21 Anterior Cervical Discectomy Sim-Ortho simulator 83.30%
V B L Islam et al.90 2011 US 35 Aug-19 Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos Not specified
V B L Islam et al.91 2013 US, India 52 52 Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos Not specified
V B L Islam et al.92 2016 US 156 52 Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos 74%
V B L Yamaguchi et al.27 2016 Japan 38 38 Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos Not specified
V B L Sgouros et al.93 2018 Greece 74 Not specified Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos 96%
V B L Loukas et al.94 2020 Greece 64 32 Peg transfer, knot tying, Suturing, Shape cutting Endoscopic videos Not specified
V B O Sharma et al.95 2014 US, UK 31 16 Suturing, knot tying Endoscopic videos 93.50%
V B O Zia et al.96 2015 US 71 18 Suturing, knot tying Endoscopic videos DCT: 85.7–100%; DFT: 91.4–100%
V B O Zia et al97 2016 US, UK 71; 33 18; 16 Suturing, knot tying Endoscopic videos DCT: 97.4–98.4%; DFT: 95.8–97.7%
V B O Miller et al.98 2018 US 70 35 Suturing, knot tying Endoscopic videos Not specified
V B R Funke et al.99 2019 Germany 103 8 Suturing, Needle passing, Knot tying Endoscopic videos LOSO: 95.1%–100.0%.
V B R Gorantla et al.100 2019 US 24 12 Urethro-vesical anastomosis Endoscopic videos HMM 98.18%, LDA 70%
V B R Gahan et al.101 2020 US 23 Not specified Urethro-vesical anastomosis Endoscopic videos 65–74%
V R L Jin et al.21 2018 US 15 Not specified Laparoscopic cholecystectomy Endoscopic videos Not specified
V R R Baghdadi et al.20 2019 US 20 20 Pelvic lymph node dissection from Robot assisted radical cystectomy Endoscopic videos 83.30%
V R R Lee et al.24 2020 South Korea 54 12 Bilateral axillo-breast approach robotic thyroidectomy Endoscopic videos 83%
V R O Kim et al.25 2019 US 99 Not specified Capsulorhexis Endoscopic videos 63.4–84.8%
V R O Azari et al.22 2019 US 103 9 Hand tie, suturing Endoscopic videos Not specified
V S O Zhu et al.76 2015 US 23 4 Capsulorhexis Kitaro simulator 58.3–85.2%
KV B L Rosen et al.40 2001 US 8 8 Laparoscopic cholecystectomy, Nissen fundoplication An instrumented laparoscopic grasper with three-axis force/torque sensor and video Not specified
KV B L Rosen et al.38 2001 US 10 10 Laparoscopic cholecystectomy, Nissen fundoplication An instrumented laparoscopic grasper with three-axis force/torque sensor and video 87.50%
KV B L Leong et al.102 2007 UK 22 11 Point localization A Polaris infrared tracker on the handle of the laparoscopic instrument and video data Not specified
KV B L Kelly et al.103 2020 US 454 124 Suturing, peg transfer, clipping cutting Video, kinematic data from EDGE platform SU 96.9%, PT 87.5%, PC 87.5%, clipping 73.33%
KV B O Zia et al.104 2018 United States 74 41 Suturing, Knot tying, Video and accelerometer data Video: SU 95.1, KT 92.2 Accelerometer: SU 86.8, KT 78.7%
KV B O Zhang et al.33 2020 UK 20–24 per task 8 Positioning task, Path following, Needle insertion Microsurgical Robot Research Platform 84.7–97.9%
KV S O Bissonnette et al.17 2019 Canada 41 41 L3 hemilaminectomy NeuroVR platform 65.9–97.6%

Data: K kinematics, V video, KV kinematics and video. Env environment: B benchtop, S simulation, R real. L laparoscopic, R robotic, O other. Task: EM electromagnetic, VR virtual reality. Accuracy: MAE mean absolute error, OSATS objective structured assessment of technical skill, LOUO leave-one-user-out, LOSO leave-one-super-trial-out, SU suturing, NP needle passing, KT knot tying, RMSE root mean square error, LOS length of stay, DCT discrete cosine transform, DFT discrete fourier transform, HMM Hidden Markov Model, LDA Linear Discriminant Analysis, PC pattern cutting.