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. 2022 Mar 4;22(11):657–673. doi: 10.1038/s41577-022-00684-6

Fig. 2. Inflammatory manifestations in PD.

Fig. 2

The figure highlights inflammatory manifestations that have been identified in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). Intestinal dysbiosis and inflammation (step 1), increases in levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines (step 2), innate and adaptive immune cell activation and changes in frequency (step 3), blood–brain barrier permeability and peripheral immune cell infiltration of the central nervous system (step 4) and neuroinflammation (step 5) are hallmarks of a pro-inflammatory immune phenotype in PD. ROS, reactive oxygen species.