Table 1.
Summary of the included studies
| Study | Participant characteristics | Sample size | Type of sport | Training content and metrics | Scale and intensity zones | Number of coaches and/or yrs experience | Results | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | Stature (cm) | Body mass (kg) | Status/level | M/F/T | ||||||
| Andrade et al. [44] | 23.2 ± 2.2 | 180 ± 10 | 79.0 ± 6.0 |
Elite (Brazilian Open Circuit, World Championships and Olympic Games) |
0/3/3 | Beach Volleyball | 3 weeks; Overall RPE and sRPE | CR10 |
2 coaches; 1 tactical-technical and 1 physical fitness (> 15 yrs of professional coaching experience) |
RPE 1st week: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference) 2nd week: Coaches = Athletes 3rd week: Coaches = Athletes Physical fitness training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference) Strength training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference) Tactical-technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes sRPE 1st week: Coaches > Athletes 2nd week: Coaches = Athletes 3rd week: Coaches = Athletes Physical fitness training sessions: Coaches < Athletes (Probable difference) Strength training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Probable difference) Tactical-technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes |
| Andrade Nogueira et al. [25] | 24 ± 2.8 | 189.3 ± 9.7 | 84.6 ± 11.1 |
Professional (Brazilian first division league) |
15/0/15 | Volleyball | 34 training sessions; 2 (5.9%) easy, 23 (67.6%) moderate and 9 (26.5%) hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
1 coach |
RPE Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01) Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.01) |
| Barnes et al. [19] | M: 20.2 ± 1.4; F: 19.7 ± 1.6 | M: 176.6 ± 7.8; F: 168.4 ± 6.5 | M: 67.9 ± 7.1; F: 53.9 ± 6.0 | Highly trained | 13/12/25 | Cross-country runners |
110 training days (3024 sessions; 1875 (62%) easy, 544 (18%) moderate and 605 (20%) hard sessions); RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
2 coaches |
RPE Easy zone: Coach < M athlete (P < 0.0001), and F athlete (P < 0.001) Moderate zone: Coach < M athlete (P = 0.001); Coach = F athlete (P = 0.38) Hard zone: Coach = M athlete (P = 0.91); Coach > F athlete (P = 0.006) sRPE Easy zone: Coach < M athlete (P < 0.0001), and F athlete (P < 0.001) Moderate zone: Coach < M athlete (P = 0.002); Coach = F athlete (P = 0.61) Hard zone: Coach = M athlete (P = 0.68); Coach > F athlete (P = 0.008) |
| Barroso et al. [26] | 11–12 yrs: 11.2 ± 0.4; 13–14 yrs: 13.4 ± 0.5; 15–16 yrs: 15.4 ± 0.6 | 11–12 yrs: 146.7 ± 4,5; 13–14 yrs: 158.4 ± 6.9; 15–16 yrs: 169.6 ± 6.1 | 11–12 yrs: 38.8 ± 2.4; 13–14 yrs: 49.6 ± 5.4; 15–16 yrs: 60.1 ± 5.8 |
Local, State and National level |
NR/NR/160 | Swimming | 9 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
9 coaches; 11–12 yrs: 13.2 ± 1.9 yrs of competitive coaching experience; 13–14 yrs: 12.1 ± 1.7 yrs of competitive coaching experience; 15–16 yrs: 14.5 ± 2.7 yrs of competitive coaching experience |
RPE (range 11–12 years old) Easy and moderate for Athletes > Coaches (P < 0.05) Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05) RPE (range 13–14 yrs old) Easy and moderate for Athletes > Coaches (P < 0.05) Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05) RPE (range 15–16 yrs old) Easy and moderate for Athletes = Coaches (P > 0.05) Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05) Correlations Range 11–12 yrs old: r = 0.31 (P < 0.001) Range 13–14 yrs old: r = 0.51 (P < 0.001) Range 15–16 yrs old: r = 0.74 (P < 0.001) |
| Barroso et al. [38] | 21.1 ± 1.1 | 178 ± 6 | 74.1 ± 8.3 | Moderately trained | 13/0/13 | Swimming | 4 training sessions; Overall RPE | CR10 | 1 coach (7 yrs coaching experience) |
RPE Overall: Coach > Athletes (10 × 200 m (P = 0.005) and 5 × 400 m (P = 0.033) |
| Brink et al. [5] | U17; U19 |
U17: 174.5 ± 7.9 U19: 178.3 ± 7.1 |
U17: 61.7 ± 6.5 U19: 71.1 ± 8.6 |
Professional | 33/0/33 | Soccer | 2446 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
6 to 20 Borg scale RPE Easy < 13 Mod.13–14 Hard > 14 |
2 coaches; (numerous yrs of experience at the highest level -UEFA A and PRO license) |
RPE Overall: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001) sRPE Overall: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001) Duration Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001) Correlations RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.24 (P < 0.0001) sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.41 (P < 0.0001) Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.49 (P < 0.0001) |
| Brink et al. [39] | U15: 14.3 ± 0.3 U17: 16.3 ± 0.2 |
U15: 168.1 ± 11.1 U17: 179.9 ± 4.9 |
U15: 56.3 ± 12.9 U17: 67.8 ± 5.2 |
Highest level of competition in the Netherlands | 31/0/31 | Soccer |
977 training sessions (8 weeks); U15 = 445 sessions; U17 = 532 sessions; Overall RPE, RIE and ROE |
6 to 20 Borg scale |
2 coaches; 1 U15 coach = 18 yrs of professional coaching experience; 1 U17 coach = 23 yrs of professional coaching experience |
RPE Coaches RIE and ROE < Athlete's RPE (P < 0.01) Correlations Coaches RIE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.58 (P < 0.01) Coaches ROE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.64 (P < 0.01) |
| Cruz et al. [27] | 14.0 ± 1.32 | 162.7 ± 9.3 | 52.4 ± 11.5 | State level | 15/13/28 | Track and field | 4 weeks (20 training sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
1 coach (6 yrs of experience) |
RPE Overall: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001) Easy zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001) Moderate zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001) Hard zone: Coach < Athletes (P < 0.001) |
| Doeven et al. [40] | 26.7 ± 3.8 | 197.2 ± 9.1 | 100.3 ± 15.2 | Elite | 14/0/14 | Basketball | 15 matches within 6 weeks (2.5 matches/week); Overall RPE, ROE and sRPE |
6 to 20 Borg scale |
3 coaches: 1 head coach (> 10 yrs of elite coaching experience), 1 assistant coach and 1 strength and conditioning coach |
RPE Coaches ROE > Athlete's RPE (P = 0.029) Correlations Coaches ROE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.25 (P < 0.01) |
| Figueiredo et al. [15] | 18.7 ± 0.7 | 175.3 ± 5.5 | 68.7 ± 6.5 | Elite U19 | 16/0/16 | Soccer | 3 weeks (15 training sessions, 5 training sessions (1 training session per day) per week); Overall RPE and sRPE | CR10 |
2 coaches: 1 technical coach and 1 fitness coach |
RPE Athletes = Coaches (P = 0.62) sRPE Athletes = Coaches (P = 0.86) Correlations (sRPE) Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.84 (P < 0.001) |
| Foster et al. [17] | NR | NR | NR | Competitive | 6/9/15 | Middle and long distance runners | 5 weeks training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
3 coaches (each athlete had only one coach) |
RPE Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05) sRPE Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05) Duration Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Correlations RPE Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.75 (P ≤ 0.05) sRPE Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.74 (P ≤ 0.05) Duration Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.65 (P ≤ 0.05) |
| Ieno et al. [28] | 23.75 ± 4.86 | 167 ± 6.68 | 62.25 ± 6.16 |
Elite (Olympic team) |
2/2/4 | Open-water swimmers | 5 weeks (160 training sessions); (37.8% (60) easy, 44.1% (71) moderate and 18.1% (29) hard sessions); RPE, for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy ≤ 3 Mod. 4–6 Hard ≥ 7 |
1 coach |
RPE Easy zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.663) Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.110) Hard zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.149) |
| Imamura et al. [41] |
Black belt: 21.5 ± 0.5 White belt: 19.9 ± 0.8 |
Black belt: 171.8 ± 7.4 White belt: 169.4 ± 4.6 |
Black belt: 66.8 ± 8.9 White belt: 59.9 ± 7.3 |
Fukuoka University Karate Club (Black belt: Japan National Karate Team and top competitors in Japan) |
14/0/14 | Karate | 1 session (1000 punches and 1000 kicks); Overall RPE |
6 to 20 Borg scale |
9 coaches |
RPE 1000 punches (black belt and white belt) and 1000 kicks (black belt): Coach > Athletes (P < 0.05) 1000 kicks (white belt): Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) |
| Inoue et al. [29] | 33.1 ± 9.9 | 177.3 ± 6.7 | 71.1 ± 6.9 | Trained | 14/0/14 | Road Cycling and Mountain Biking | 2 weeks during the competitive period (146 training sessions); 11.6% (17) easy, 59.6% (87) moderate and 28.8% (42) hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
5 coaches (7.2 ± 4.1 yrs of coaching experience) |
RPE Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.586) Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P = 0.013) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.651) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.051) sRPE Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.738) Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.073) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.664) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.388) Duration Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.717) Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.393) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.980) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.853) Correlations RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.73 (P < 0.0001) sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.87 (P < 0.0001) Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.95 (P < 0.0001) |
| Kraft et al. [30] | 18–23 | NR | NR |
4 Division intercollegiate athletic teams |
NR/NR/56 | Volleyball, Basketball, and Soccer |
433 training sessions (~ 45% (195) easy, ~ 48% (208) moderate and ~ 7% (30) hard sessions); RPE, RIE and ROE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
Generic 0 to 10 point scale using the Omni verbal cues for adults RPE Easy ≤ 4 Mod. 5–7 Hard ≥ 8 |
4 head coaches |
RPE Overall: Athlete's RPE < Coaches RIE, and ROE (P ≤ 0.05) Easy zone: Athlete's RPE < Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05) Moderate zone: Athlete's RPE < Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05) Hard zone: Athlete's RPE > Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05) Correlations Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE: r = 0.83 (P ≤ 0.05) Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE: r = 0.65 (P ≤ 0.05) |
| Lupo et al. [45] | 16.7 ± 0.5 | 178 ± 9 | 72 ± 9 | Elite | 0/15/15 | Basketball | 268 training sessions; Overall sRPE | CR10 | 4 coaches (1head and 2 assistant coaches, 1 physical trainer) |
sRPE Strength training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Conditioning training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (P = 0.01) Technique training sessions: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.001) |
| Medina et al. [42] | 27 ± 5.1 | 175.9 ± 5.9 | 73.9 ± 6.1 | Professional | 12/0/12 | Futsal | 40 weeks (225 training sessions); Overall RPE |
6 to 20 Borg scale |
2 coaches |
RPE Coaches = Athletes Correlations Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.74 (P < 0.05) |
| Murphy et al. [49] | 15.0 ± 1.2 | 167.0 ± 10.8 | 60.0 ± 14.2 | Elite junior | 8/6/14 | Tennis |
21 ± 3 training sessions (16 weeks, 285 drills); RPE, drill physical RPE, drill mental RPE |
CR10 |
6 coaches (10 ± 3 yrs elite-level coaching experience) |
RPE Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01) Correlations Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.59 (P < 0.05) |
| Nogueira et al. [31] | 15.2 ± 0.57 | 170.1 ± 6.3 | 59.7 ± 5.7 | State and National | 10/7/17 | Swimming | 18 training sessions; 11.1% (2) easy, 83.3% (15) moderate and 5.6% (1) hard sessions; RPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
1 coach |
RPE Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) |
| Oytun et al. [46] | 20.7 ± 5.4 | 164.0 ± 6.7 | 62.8 ± 10.0 |
First division women’s handball league in North Cyprus |
0/56/56 | Handball | 57 training sessions, Overall sRPE | CR10 | 4 coaches |
sRPE Coaches > Athletes (P = < 0.02) Correlations Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.93 (P < 0.01) |
| Rabelo et al. [20] | 24.6 ± 3.8 | 176 ± 10 | 77.0 ± 9.6 | Professional | 18/0/18 | Futsal | 45 weeks (157 training sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate, hard zones and season periods |
CR10 RPE 2-step cluster to classify easy, moderate and hard zones |
1 coach (> 3 yrs experience) |
RPE Coaches > Athletes (all season periods (Pre-season, first competitive period, intercompetition period and second competitive period) and intensity zones (easy, moderate and hard)) |
| Redkva et al. [16] | 24.1 ± 3.4 | 178.6 ± 6.1 | 78.3 ± 9.2 | Professional | 24/0/24 | Soccer |
22 training sessions (1465 min, 32% (470 min) = physical, 20% (290 min) = technical and 48% (705 min) = tactical training); First 3 weeks of preseason; Overall RPE and sRPE |
CR10 |
2 coaches: 1 technical coach (8 yrs coaching experience), 1 fitness coach (20 yrs experience) |
sRPE Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.70) Tactical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Physical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Correlations Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.60 (P < 0.003) |
| Rodrigues-Marroyo et al. [47] | 21 ± 3 | 170.5 ± 6.6 | 63.7 ± 4.9 | University team (Spanish volleyball third division) | 0/12/12 | Volleyball | 15 weeks of training; Overall RPE and sRPE | CR10 | 4 coaches (2 experts (> 10 yrs experience), 2 beginners (≤ 1 yr experience) |
RPE Overall: Coaches (experts and beginners) = Athletes (P > 0.05) sRPE Overall: Coaches (experts and beginners) = Athletes (P > 0.05) Correlations RPE Expert coaches and Athletes: r = 0.70 (P < 0.01) RPE Beginner coaches and Athletes: r = 0.72 (P < 0.01) sRPE Expert coaches and Athletes: r = 0.75 (P < 0.01) sRPE Beginner coaches and Athletes: r = 0.76 (P < 0.01) |
| Scantlebury et al. [32] |
Hockey: 17.4 ± 0.8; Netball: 17.6 ± 0.6; Rugby union: 17.2 ± 0.4 Soccer: 17.2 ± 0.8 |
Hockey: 164.7 ± 6.4; Netball: 167.8 ± 4.2; Rugby union: 79.9 ± 5.4; Soccer: 174.0 ± 0.05 |
Hockey: 60.0 ± 6.3; Netball: 58.0 ± 7.2; Rugby union: 83.6 ± 11.5 Soccer: 73.6 ± 7.1 |
Independent school | 20/17/37 | Hockey, Netball, Rugby union, and Soccer | 219 training sessions; 28 easy, 125 moderate and 66 hard sessions; RPE, RIE and ROE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–4 Hard ≥ 5 |
4 coaches (1 per sport). All coaches had > 5 yrs coaching experience and had worked with participants for > 1 yr |
RPE Overall: Athlete's RPE = Coaches RIE, and ROE Easy zone: moderate ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: 1.17; 95% CI 0.7 to 1.65) and Coaches ROE (ES: 0.83; 95% CI 0.4 to 1.28) Moderate zone: small ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: -0.36; 95% CI -0,56 to -0.11) and Coaches ROE (ES: -0.29; 95% CI -0.46 to -0.11) Hard zone: small ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: -0.46; 95% CI -0,72 to -0.20); trivial ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE (ES: -0.05; 95% CI -0.24 to 0.36) Correlations Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE: r = 0.39 (95% CI 0.27 to 0.49) Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE: r = 0.63 (95% CI 0.54 to 0.70) |
| Sinnott-O’Connor et al. [33] | 19 ± 4 | NR | 48.5 ± 7.6 |
World class (Irish Paralympic swimming team) |
1/3/4 | Paralympic Swimmers | 16 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
1 coach |
sRPE Easy zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.05) Moderate zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.01) Hard zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.05) |
| Vaquera et al. [43] | 16 ± 0.4 | 183.9 ± 5.8 | NR | Junior Spanish national League | 12/0/12 | Basketball | 6 weeks (15 training sessions); 7 games of one-a-side (1v1), 6 games of 2-a-side (2v2), 8 games of 5-a-side (5v5), and 5 games of superiority (3v2) situations; Overall RPE | CR10 |
1 coach (18 yrs experience training U16 and U18 players) |
RPE Coach < Athletes (in all games, all P < 0.0001 apart from 5v5 P = 0.0019) |
| Viveiros et al. [48] | NR | NR | NR | Brazilian national team | NR/NR/40 | Judo | 4 training sessions; Overall RPE | CR10 |
4 separate coaches for the sessions |
RPE Overall: Coach < Athletes (P < 0.05) |
| Voet et al. [34] | M: 21 ± 3; F: 19 ± 0 | NR | M: 69.1 ± 4.4; F: 60.8 ± 1.1 | Semi-professional 2 females and 1 male cyclist (World Tour team) | 9/2/11 | Road Cycling | 747 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones |
6 to 20 Borg scale RPE Easy < 11 Mod. 11–14 Hard > 14 |
1 coach (5 yrs experience in coaching cyclists at UCI Continental level, or higher) |
RPE Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Easy zone: Coach > Athletes (P = 0.004) Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001) sRPE Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Easy zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Duration Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05) Correlations RPE Coach and Athletes: r = 0.73 (P < 0.05) sRPE Coach and Athletes: r = 0.87 (P < 0.05) |
| Wallace et al. [18] | 22.3 ± 3.1 | 175.0 ± 9.0 | 71.8 ± 11.6 | Well-trained (National level) | 6/6/12 | Swimming |
3-month period (20 individual training sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones |
CR10 RPE Easy < 3 Mod. 3–5 Hard > 5 |
2 coaches (qualified swimming instructors) |
RPE Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05) sRPE Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05) Correlations RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.84 (P < 0.01) sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.85 (P < 0.01) Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.86 (P < 0.01) |
NR = not reported; M = males; F = females; yrs = years; T = total; > = greater-than; < = less-than; ≠ = difference; n = number of easy, moderate and hard sessions; Mod. = moderate; ES = effect size; 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; U = under; UCI = Union Cycliste Internationale; 6–20 Borg scale = 6 to 20 Borg ratings of perceived exertion scale; CR10 = category ratio 10 scale; RPE = ratings of perceived exertion; sRPE = session ratings of perceived exertion; RIE = ratings of intended exertion by coaches; ROE = ratings of observed exertion by coaches