Table 1.

Effects of cooling and heating following resistance exercise on functional recovery and training adaptations

References	Participants	Exercise protocol	Post-exercise recovery method	Main finding	Main effect
Single post-exercise exposure
Argus et al. [33]	Recreationally trained subjects (13 M, 26 Y)	3 × 5 deadlifts at 6 RM load + 3 × 10 back squats, bench presses, barbell lunges, and barbell bent-over rows at 11 RM load	Crossover design: Immersion up to the neck:  CWI: 15 °C for 14 min.  CWT: 1 min at 38 °C and 1 min at 38 °C for 14 min.  CON: 20 min PR (23 °C)	Similar MVIC KE torque and jump performance (CMJ) in the 3 conditions @ 5 min, 2 h and 4 h post-recovery	Ø of CWI and CWT on neuromuscular function @ 5 min to 4 h
Gonzalez et al. [36]	Recreationally trained subjects (40 M, 22 Y)	4x ~ 10 squats, deadlifts, and barbell split squats at 70–80% 1RM	2 groups*:  CWI: 10–12 °C for 10 min  CON: 10 min PR. *exclusion of two groups (nutrition supplementation with/without CWI)	Similar number of reps and average power at 80% 1RM (squat) over four sets in CWI and CON groups @ 24–48 h post-Ex	Ø of CWI on fatigue resistance @ 24–48 h
Jajtner et al. [37]	Recreationally trained subjects (30 M)	4x ~ 10 squats, deadlifts, and barbell split squats at 70–80% 1RM	2 groups*:  CWI: 10–12 °C for 10 min.  CON: 10 min PR. *exclusion of one group (neuromuscular electrical stimulation)	Similar number of reps and average power at 80% 1RM (squat) over four sets in CWI and CON groups @ 24–48 h post-Ex	Ø of CWI on fatigue resistance @ 24–48 h
Pointon et al. [20]	Recreationally trained subjects (10 M, 21 Y)	6 × 25 maximal CONC (60°/s)/ECC (120°/s) single leg isokinetic KE. 20 °C	Crossover design:  CWC: ice cuff (exercised leg) for 20 min.  CON: 20 min PR	Similar MVIC KE torque, potentiated twitch torque and VA in CWC and CON @ 2, 24 and 48-h post-recovery. Similar voluntary EMG (RMS) and M-wave amplitude in CWC and CON @ 2, 24 and 48 h after recovery	Ø of CWI on neuromuscular function @ 2–48 h
Roberts et al. [29]	Recreationally trained subjects (10 M, 21 Y)	6 × squats to failure at 8–12 RM loads. 3 × 12 walking dumbbell lunges at 40% body mass load 3 × 12 countermovement DJ -24 °C, 49% RH	Crossover design.  CWI: 10 °C for 10 min (up to the clavicle).  CON: active recovery cycling at ~ 45 W for 10 min	Similar maximal isometric squat force and jump performance (SJ, CMJ) in CWI and CON @ 2–4 h after Ex. Greater recovery of average and total load lifted during 6 × 10 squats at 80% 1RM in CWI versus CON @ 6-h post-Ex	↑ of CWI on fatigue resistance @ 6 h. Ø of CWI on maximal muscle function @ 2–4 h
Roberts et al. [30]	Recreationally trained subjects (10 M, 21 Y)	10 × 20 maximal isokinetic concentric KE at 90°/s. 24 °C and 43.5% RH	Crossover design:  CWI: 10 °C for 10 min.  CON: active recovery cycling at ~ 41 W for 10 min	Reduced MVIC KE torque @ 5, 20 and 40 min post-recovery in CON (vs. to pre-Ex) but not in CWI. Similar fatigue resistance (50 reps isokinetic KE at 90°/s) @ 60 min post-recovery in CWI and CON	↑ of CWI on MVIC: @ 5–40 min. Ø of CWI on fatigue resistance @ 60 min
Wilson et al. [31]	Recreationally trained subjects (24 M, 25 Y)	80% 1RM:  4 × 6 back squats.  4 × 8 split squats, hip thrusts, Romanian deadlifts	2 groups:  CWI: 10 °C for 10 min.  PLA: 10 min PR with ingestion of a cornstarch pill (placebo). *exclusion of one group (cryotherapy chamber)	Lower recovery of MVIC KE torque @ 24–48 h post-Ex in CWI versus PLA groups. Lower recovery of maximal isometric squat force in CWI versus PLA groups @ 48 h post-Ex, with similar recovery in the 2 groups @ 24 and 72 h post-Ex. Lower recovery of maximal isokinetic KE torque (60°/s) @ 24–48 h post-Ex in CWI versus PLA groups. Lower recovery of CMJ performance @ 48–72 h post-Ex in CWI versus PLA groups	↓ of CWI (vs. PLA) on maximal strength and jump performance @24–72 h
Repeated post-exercise exposures
Fröhlich et al. [34]	Recreationally trained subjects (17 M, 23 Y)	5-wk RT (# session/wk not stated):  3 × 8–12 CONC and ECC knee flexions at 75–80% 1RM	Immersion after each session, contralateral limb-control design:  CWI: 3 × 4 min at 12 °C with 30 s rest.  CON (leg 2): PR	Similar increase in maximal force (1RM, KF) in CWI and CON. Lower increase in fatigue resistance (12RM, KF) in CWI versus CON	Ø of CWI on maximal strength. ↓ of CWI on fatigue resistance
Fyfe et al. [35]	Recreationally trained subjects (16 M, 25 Y)	7-wk RT (3 sessions/wk):  3 × 12-RM or 20-RM (20 upper and lower body and trunk Ex)	Immersion after each session, 2 groups:  CWI (up to the sternum): 10 °C for 15 min.  CON: 15 min PR	Similar increase in maximal force (1RM bench press and leg press) in both groups. Similar peak SJ force and push-up force in both groups after training. Smaller gain in peak CMJ force in CWI versus CON groups	Ø of CWI on maximal strength. Ballistic Ex: Ø (SJ and push-up) or ↓ (CMJ) of CWI
Ohnishi et al. [39]	Recreationally trained subjects (16 M, 21 Y)	6-wk RT (3 sessions/wk): 3 × 8-RM handgrip Ex	Unilateral immersion of the elbow joint and lower arm after each session. 2 groups.  CWI: 10 °C for 20 min.  CON: PR	No improvement of MVIC handgrip force in both CWI and CON groups. Improvement of fatigue resistance (number of reps at 30% RM with a pace of 30 reps/min) lower (tendency) in CWI versus CON	Ø of CWI on maximal strength. Potential ↓ of CWI on fatigue resistance
Poppendieck et al. [53]	Recreationally trained subjects (9 M and 2 F, 25 Y)	8-wk RT (3 sessions/wk):  3 × 10-RM (leg press, KF and KE)	Immersion after each session, crossover design (8-wk washout period):  CWI (up to the neck): 14–15 °C for 10 min.  CON: 10 min PR	No improvement of maximal force (1-RM leg press) and jump performance (CMJ) in both CWI and CON	Ø of CWI on maximal strength and jump performance
Roberts et al. [55]	Recreationally trained subjects (24 M, 21 Y)	12-wk RT (2 sessions/wk):  3–6 × 8–12 reps at 8–12 RM loads (leg press, KE, KF) and 3 × 10–18 reps (walking lunges, plyometrics).  23–25 °C	Immersion after each session, 2 groups:  CWI: 10 °C for 10 min.  CON: 10 min active recovery cycling at ~ 60 W	Lower increase in maximal force (leg press force, KE force and MVIC KE torque) in CWI versus CON groups. No improvement of maximal isokinetic KE torque (90°/s) in both groups. Fatigue resistance (50 reps isokinetic KE at 90°/s): increase after training only in CON group over 1–25 reps	↓ of CWI on maximal force (except isokinetic torque). ↓ of CWI on fatigue resistance
Stadnyk et al. [25]	Recreationally trained subjects (5 M and 5 F, 21 Y)	12-wk RT (2–3 sessions/wk):  4 × 8 reps at 70% 1RM (ECC and CONC single limb KE)	Contralateral limb-control design:  Heat (heat pad wrapped around the thigh): ~ 40 °C during and for 20 min after each session.  CON: PR	Similar increase in peak and mean isokinetic torque (CONC KE at 90°/s) in heat and CON legs	Ø of Heat on muscle strength
Yamane et al. [32]	Contralateral limb-control design:  Sedentary subjects (7 M + 4 F, 20 Y) 2 groups (unilateral immersion):  Sedentary subjects (16 M, 21 Y)	4-wk RT (3 sessions/wk):  3 × 8 isotonic handgrip Ex at 70–80% 1RM.  25 °C, 50% RH	Unilateral immersion of the elbow joint and lower arm after each session. Contralateral limb-control design:  CWI: 10 °C for 20 min.  CON: PR. 2 groups.  CWI: 10 °C for 20 min.  CON: PR	Similar increase in MVIC handgrip force in CWI and CON (both experiments). Improvement of fatigue resistance (number of reps at 30% RM with a pace of 30 reps/min) lower in CWI versus CON (contralateral limb-control design), or similar in CWI and CON groups (2 groups)	Ø of CWI on maximal strength. Ø or ↓ of CWI on fatigue resistance
Yamane et al. [38]	Recreationally trained subjects (14 M, 20 Y)	6-wk RT (3 sessions/wk):  5 × 8 wrist-flexion at 70–80% 1RM.  25 °C, 50% RH	Unilateral immersion of the elbow joint and lower arm after each session. 2 groups.  CWI: 10 °C for 20 min.  CON: PR	Improvement of MVIC wrist flexor force lower in CWI versus CON. Improvement of fatigue resistance (number of reps at 35% RM with a pace of 30 reps/min) lower (tendency) in CWI versus CON	↓ of CWI on maximal strength and fatigue resistance

Water immersion was applied up to the waist/lower part of the trunk, unless stated otherwise. Text highlighted in italic describes the ambient condition, when stated (air temperature and relative humidity)

Text in bold describes the specific time points

CMJ countermovement jump, CON control, CONC concentric, CWC cold water cuff, CWI cold water immersion, DJ drop jump, ECC eccentric, Ex exercise, F female, KE knee extension, KF knee flexion, M male, MVIC maximal voluntary isometric contraction, PLA placebo, PR passive recovery, reps repetitions, RH relative humidity, RM repetition maximum, RMS root mean square, SJ squat jump, RT resistance training, VA voluntary activation assessed via interpolated twitch technique, wk week, Y year, ↑ positive effect, ↓ negative effect, Ø no effect

*Some groups were excluded because they were not relevant for the purpose of the review