Table 2.
Effects of cooling and heating following endurance exercise on functional recovery and training adaptations
| References | Participants | Exercise protocol | Post-exercise recovery method | Main finding | Main effect |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single post-exercise exposure | |||||
| Brophy-Williams et al. [74] | Well trained team-sport players (8 M, 21 Y) |
Running: 8 × 3 min at 90% Vmax. 23 °C and 43% RH |
Crossover design: CWI: 15 °C for 15 min immediately or 3 h post-Ex. CON: 15 min PR immediately after Ex |
Higher number of shuttles completed (Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test) @ 24 h post-Ex in CWI (immediately > 3 h post-Ex) versus CON | ↑ of CWI (immediately post-HIIE) on shuttle test performance @ 24 h |
| Chauvineau et al. [101] | Well trained runners (12 M, 28 Y) |
Running: Simulated trail run for 48 min 21 °C and 44% RH |
Crossover design: CWI (whole body including the head): 13 °C for 10 min. CWI (up to the waist): 13 °C for 10 min. CON: 10 min PR (19 °C) |
Similar recovery of MVIC KE torque and CMJ performance @ 24–48 h post-Ex in all conditions | Ø of CWI on maximal strength and jump performance @ 24–48 h |
| Cheng et al. [19] | Recreationally trained subjects (4 F and 1 M, 26 Y) |
Arm cycling: 3 × 5 min (all-out) + 4 × 15 min at 50% VO2max |
Crossover design. Use of water-perfused arm cuff: Ice-chilled for 2 h. Heated at 38 °C for 2 h. CON: heated at ~ 33 °C for 2 h |
Better maintenance of mean PO (3 × 5 min all-out arm cycling) immediately after recovery method after heating versus cooling | ↑ of heating and ↓ of cooling on fatigue resistance @ 0 h |
| Crampton et al. [75] | Recreationally trained triathletes (9 M, 30 Y) |
Cycling: 5 min at 50% VO2max + 5 min at 60% VO2max + 80% VO2max until exhaustion. 21 °C |
Crossover design: CWI: 15 °C for 30 min. TWI: 34 °C for 30 min. CWT: 2,5 min at 8 °C and 2,5 min at 40 °C for 30 min. CON: 30 min active recovery |
Greater time to failure during intense cycling (80% VO2max) @ 5 min post-recovery in CWI versus other conditions, and in CWT versus CON | ↑ of CWI and CWT (to a lower extent) on fatigue resistance @ 5 min |
| Dantas et al. [97] | Recreationally trained runners (30 M, 32 Y) |
Running: 10-km TT run. 30 °C and 69% RH |
3 groups: CWI: 10 °C for 10 min. TWI: 30 °C for 10 min. CON: 10 min PR |
Similar jump performance (triple hop distance) and strength (maximal voluntary concentric KE at 60°/s) in the 3 groups immediately and @ 24 h post-recovery | Ø of CWI on jump performance and maximal strength (@ 0 and 24 h |
| De Paula et al. [22] | Recreationally trained subjects (9 M, 24 Y) |
Running: Unilateral ECC KF EX + 90 min running (70% VO2peak). 20 °C and 70% RH |
Crossover design: CWI: 15 °C for 15 min. HWI: 38 °C for 15 min. TWI: 28 °C for 15 min. CON: 15 min PR |
Similar 5-km running time @ 4 h post-recovery in all conditions | Ø of CWI and HWI on endurance performance @ 4 h |
| De Pauw et al. [82] | Trained subjects (9 M, 22 Y) |
Cycling: 60 min at 55% Pmax + 30 min TT (Ex1). 60 min recovery. TT to perform a work equivalent to 12 min at 85% Pmax (Ex2). 30 °C and 50% RH |
Crossover design: Immersion starting directly after Ex1: CWI (up to the sternum): 15 °C for 15 min (30 °C). CON: 15 min PR (30 °C). *exclusion of one condition (active recovery) |
Similar cycling performance of Ex2 in the 2 conditions @ 60 min post-Ex1. Gradual decline of PO after the onset of Ex2 in PR, but not in CWI |
Ø of CWI on subsequent (@ 60 min) endurance performance |
| Dunne et al. [76] | Well trained subjects (9 M, 29 Y) |
Running: 5 min at 50% Vmax + 5 min at 60% Vmax + 90% Vmax until exhaustion. 22 °C |
Crossover design: CWI: 15 °C or 8 °C for 15 min. CON: 15 min PR |
Higher time to failure at 90% Vmax @ 5 min post-recovery in CWI (8 °C only) versus CON | ↑ of CWI (8 °C only) on fatigue resistance @ 5 min |
| McCarthy et al. [77] | Recreationally trained subjects (15 M, 21 Y) |
Cycling: 12 min at 85% VT + 30 s/30 s interval bouts (90% peak PO/40% peak PO) to exhaustion. 19 °C |
Crossover design: CWI: 8 °C for 5 or 10 min. CON: PR |
Higher time to failure (30 s/30 s interval bouts at 90% peak PO/40% peak PO) immediately post-recovery in CWI (5 and 10 min) versus CON | ↑ of CWI on fatigue resistance @ 0 h |
| Peiffer et al. [95] | Well trained cyclists (10 M, 27 Y) |
Cycling: 90 min at 80% VT2 + 16.1 km TT. 32 °C and 55% RH |
Crossover design: CWI: 14.3 °C for 20 min. CON: 20 min PR (24 °C) |
Lower MVIC and SMVIC KE torques @ 45 and 90 min post-Ex in CWI versus CON | ↓ of CWI on maximal strength @ 45–90 min |
| Peiffer et al. [96] | Well trained cyclists (12 M, 29 Y) |
Cycling: Time-to-exhaustion test at VT1. 40 °C and 40% RH |
Crossover design. Immersion starting 25 min post-Ex: CWI: 14.3 °C for 5, 10 or 20 min. CON: 20 min PR (24 °C) |
Similar MVIC KE torque and isokinetic KE torque (240°/s) @ 55 min post-Ex in CWI and CON | Ø of CWI on maximal strength @ 55 min |
| Peiffer et al. [78] | Well trained cyclists (10 M, 35 Y) |
Cycling: 25 min at 65% VO2max + 4-km TT. 35 °C and 40% RH |
Crossover design: Immersion starting 25 min post-Ex: CWI: 14 °C for 5 min (35 °C). CON: PR (35 °C) |
Greater 4-km TT performance (performed after 25 min at 65% VO2max) (35 °C) immediately post-recovery in CWI versus CON | ↑ of CWI on endurance performance in heat @ 0 h |
| Rowsell et al. [85] | Well trained triathletes (7 M, 29 Y) |
Running: 7 × 5 min at 105% anaerobic threshold. 21 °C and 40% RH |
Crossover design. Immersion starting 10 min post-Ex: CWI: 5 × 1 min at 10 °C, with 1 min rest. TWI: 5 × 1 min at 34 °C, 1 min rest |
Similar mean PO (5-min maximal cycling effort + 6 × 5 min freely paced cycling) @ 9.5 h post-Ex in CWI and TWI | Ø of CWI on endurance performance @ 9.5 h |
| Stanley et al. [84] | Well trained cyclists (18 M, 27 Y) |
Cycling: 60 min including 8 × 4 min at 80% peak PO. 22 °C |
Crossover design. Immersion starting 20 min after Ex, up to the neck: CWI: 14 °C for 5 min. CWT: 1 min at 14 °C and 2 min at 35 °C for 10 min. CON: 10 min PR |
Similar TT performance (~ 14 min cycling) @ 2.75 h post-recovery in all conditions | Ø of CWI and CWT on endurance performance @ 2.75 h |
| Stenson et al. [98] | Well trained runners and triathletes (9 M, 36 Y) |
Running: 8 × 1200 m at 75% VO2peak |
Crossover design: CWI: 12 °C for 12 min. CON: 12 min PR |
Similar 5-km running TT performance @ 24 h post-Ex in CWI and CON | Ø of CWI on endurance performance @ 24 h. |
| Vaile et al. [79] | Well trained cyclists (10 M, 32 Y) |
Cycling: 15 min at 75% peak PO + 15 min TT. 34 °C and 39% RH |
Crossover design: Immersion up to the neck: CWI intermittent: 5 × 1 min at 10 °C, 15 °C or 20 °C, with 2 min rest. CWI: 20 °C for 15 min. CON: active recovery (31 °C and 48% RH) |
Reduced cycling performance (15 min at 75% peak PO + 15 min TT in heat: 34 °C and 39% RH) @ 40 min post-recovery in CON but not in CWI conditions. No differences between the CWI conditions | ↑ of CWI on endurance performance in hot environment @ 40 min |
| Vaile et al. [80] | Well trained cyclists (10 M, 34 Y) |
Cycling: 15 min at 75% peak PO + 15 min TT. 33 °C and 44% RH |
Crossover design: Immersion up to the neck: CWI intermittent: 5 × 1 min at 10 °C, 15 °C or 20 °C, with 2 min rest. CWI: 20 °C for 15 min. CON: active recovery (33 °C and 44% RH) |
Reduced cycling performance (15 min at 75% peak PO + 15 min TT in heat: 33 °C and 44% RH) @ 40 min post-recovery in CON but not in CWI conditions. No differences between the CWI conditions | ↑ of CWI on endurance performance in hot environment @ 40 min |
| Versey et al. [87] | Well trained cyclists (11 M, 32 Y) |
Cycling: 75 min including 6 sets of 5 × 15 s sprints interspaced with 15–45 s rest + 3 × 5 min TT (Ex1). 2-h recovery. Ex2: same as Ex1. 23 °C and 44% RH |
Crossover design. Immersion up to the neck, starting 10 min after Ex1: CWT: 1 min at 38 °C and 1 min at 15 °C for 6, 12 or 18 min. CON: 20 min PR (24 °C and 48% RH) |
Greater cycling TT performance and cycling sprint performance (total work) in CWT (6 min) versus CON. Greater cycling sprint performance (total work and peak power) in CWT (12 min) versus CON |
↑ of CWT (up to 12 min) on subsequent (@ 2 h) cycling performance |
| Versey et al. [88] | Well trained runners (10 M, 37 Y) |
Running: 15-min warm-up including 3 × 100 m + 3-km TT + 8 × 400 m + 7-min warm-down (Ex1) 2-h recovery. 15-min warm-up including 3 × 100 m + 3-km TT + 7-min warm-down (Ex2). 15 °C and 50% RH |
Crossover design. Immersion up to the neck, starting 10 min after Ex1: CWT: 1 min at 38 °C and 1 min at 15 °C for 6, 12 or 18 min. CON: 20 min PR (22 °C and 43% RH) |
Slightly faster 3-km running TT of Ex2 in CWT (6 min only) versus CON | Slight ↑ of CWT (6 min) on subsequent (@ 2 h) endurance performance |
| Wilson et al. [100] | Recreationally trained runners (31 M, 40 Y) |
Running: Competitive marathon (42,2 km) |
2 groups: CWI: 8 °C for 10 min. PLA: PR with ingestion of fruit flavored drink (placebo). *exclusion of one group (cryotherapy chamber) |
Similar recovery of peak isokinetic KE torque (60°/s), MVIC KE force and DJ performance (reactive strength index) @ 24–48 h post-marathon in CWI and PLA | Ø of CWI on maximal force and jump performance @ 24–48 h |
| Wiewelhove et al. [94] | Recreational runners (46 M, 30 Y) |
Running: Competitive half-marathon (21,1 km) |
2 groups: CWI: 15 °C for 15 min. CON: 15 min PR. *exclusion of two groups (active recovery and massage therapy) |
Moderate harmful effect of CWI versus CON on CMJ performance immediately post-recovery, but no effects @ 24 h | Potential ↓ of CWI on jump performance @ 0 h but not @ 24 h |
| Yeargin et al. [81] | Well-trained runners (12 M and 3 F, 28 Y) |
Running: 90 min of moderately intense running. 27 °C |
Crossover design: CWI: 14 °C or 5 °C for 12 min (29 °C). CON: PR in hot air condition (29 °C) |
Greater 3.2-km TT running performance @ 15 min post-recovery in CWI (14 °C only) versus CON | ↑ of CWI on endurance performance in heat @ 15 min |
| Repeated post-exercise exposures | |||||
| Aguiar et al. [104] | Recreationally trained subjects (17 M, 23 Y) |
4-wk endurance cycling training (12 HIIE sessions): 8–13 × 60 s at 90–110% peak PO with 75 s rest |
Immersion after each training session, 2 groups: CWI: 10 °C for 15 min. CON: PR |
Similar improvement of 15 km- cycling TT performance in CWI and CON groups | Ø of CWI on the improvement of endurance performance |
| Halson et al. [105] | Well trained subjects (21 M, 20 Y) |
39 day- endurance cycling training (1–2 sessions/day): Low-moderate intensity road rides + HIIE sessions |
Immersion 4x /wk, 2 groups: CWI: 15 °C for 15 min (up to the neck). CON: PR |
Unclear greater increase in 2 × 4-min maximal cycling effort in CWI versus CON groups. Likely higher fatigue resistance (mean power of 2nd versus 1st 4-min maximal effort) in CWI versus CON groups. Likely greater increase in mean sprint PO in CWI versus CON groups. No between-group difference in 10 min TT performance |
Unclear or likely ↑ of CWI on endurance/sprint performance |
| Méline et al. [23] | Elite short-track speed skaters (3 F and 3 M, 21 Y) |
4-wk training (18 h/wk): ice skating, running, cycling, roller skating, fitness, RE) |
Immersion after the last session of the day, crossover design. HWI: 40 °C for 20 min. CON: 20 min PR (20 °C and 70% RH) |
MVIC KE force increased in HWI and decreased in PR. No effect of training on SJ/CMJ performance, sprint peak PO, 1-min continuous CMJ, VT and time to exhaustion during incremental test in HWI and PR. Tendency to increased VO2max only in HWI. Increase ice-skating sprint performance similar in HWI and PR |
↑ of HWI on maximal strength and VO2max (tendency). Ø of HWI on other aerobic and anaerobic parameters |
| Vaile et al. [16] | Well trained cyclists (12 M, 32 Y) |
5 consecutive training days: 105 min cycling (sprints + TT) |
Immersion up to the neck after each session, crossover design: CWI: 15 °C for 14 min. HWI: 38 °C for 14 min. CWT: 1 min at 15 °C and 1 min at 38 °C for 14 min. CON: PR |
Greater sprint performance in CWI and CWT versus CON from the 4th day, no effect of HWI. Greater TT performance in HWI (only on day 2), CWI and CWT versus CON |
↑ of CWI and CWT on maintenance of high-intensity cycling performance |
| Yamane et al. [32] | Recreationally trained subjects (6 M, 20 Y) |
4-wk cycling training (3–4 sessions/wk) 5 min at 35% VO2max + 25 min at 70% VO2max. 25 °C and 50% RH |
Unilateral immersion after each session: CWI: 2 × 20 min at 5 °C (thigh and lower leg) with 30 min rest. CON: PR |
Improvement of endurance performance (time of the one-leg incremental test) and VO2max only in the CON leg | ↓ of CWI on endurance-training adaptation |
| Zurawlew et al. [24] | Recreationally trained subjects (17 M, 23 Y) |
6 consecutive training days: 40 min running at 65% VO2max. 18 °C and 40% RH |
Immersion after each session, 2 groups: HWI group: 40 °C for 40 min. TWI group: 34 °C for 40 min |
Reduced 5-km running time performed in heat (33 °C, 40% RH) after training in HWI only. No changes in 5-km running time performed in temperate environment (18 °C, 40% RH) after training in both groups |
↑ of HWI on endurance performance in heat |
Water immersion was applied up to the waist/lower part of the trunk, unless stated otherwise. Text highlighted in italic describes the ambient condition, when stated (air temperature and relative humidity)
Text in bold describes the specific time points
CMJ countermovement jump, CON control, CWI cold water immersion, CWT contrast water therapy, DJ drop jump, ECC eccentric, Ex exercise, F female, HIIE high intensity interval exercise, HWI hot water immersion, M male, KE knee extension, KF knee flexion, MVIC maximal voluntary isometric contraction, PO power output, PR passive recovery, SMVIC maximal voluntary isometric contraction with superimposed electrical stimulation, RE resistance exercise, RH relative humidity, TT time trial, TWI thermoneutral water immersion, Vmax/Pmax: maximal speed/power obtained during a maximal incremental test (VO2max test), VO2 oxygen uptake, VT ventilatory threshold, wk week, ↑ positive effect, Y year, ↓ negative effect, Ø no effect
*Some groups/conditions were excluded because they were not relevant for the purpose of the review