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. 2022 Mar 1;44(2):209–224. doi: 10.1007/s00281-022-00919-7

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Cell extrinsic rhythmic signals drive daily variation in immune cells. Glucocorticoids are produced in a rhythmic manner via action of the SCN on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. Catecholamines are produced by the adrenal and the sympathetic nervous system and circulating levels also exhibit diurnal variation. Both glucocorticoids and catecholamines influence the function of the adaptive immune system. For example diurnal variation in glucocorticoid levels drive rhythms in CXCR4 expression on the surface of T cells and B cells. Furthermore, activation of β2AR on lymphocytes enhances the responsiveness of CXCR4; thus, daily catecholamine rhythms contribute to diurnal variation in lymphocyte function. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); glucocorticoid receptor (GR)