Table 1.
Characteristics of study participants and COVID-19 vaccination intent
| Characteristica | Overall n = 4486 |
COVID-19 vaccination intent |
OR (95% CI)b | p-Value | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Very unlikely n = 868 |
Somewhat unlikely n = 509 |
Neither likely nor unlikely n = 701 |
Somewhat likely n = 984 |
Very likely n = 1424 |
||||
| INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS | ||||||||
| Age (y) | 66.9 (7.5) | 65.2 (7.2) | 65.5 (7.3) | 65.8 (7.1) | 67.3 (7.5) | 68.8 (7.5) | 0.97 (0.96–0.98) | <0.0001 |
| Gender | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Female | 2954 (66%) | 662 (76%) | 368 (72%) | 542 (77%) | 639 (65%) | 743 (52%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Male | 1532 (34%) | 206 (24%) | 141 (28%) | 159 (23%) | 345 (35%) | 681 (48%) | 0.55 (0.49–0.62) | |
| Race/ethnicity | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Black | 1715 (38%) | 425 (49%) | 293 (58%) | 358 (51%) | 392 (40%) | 247 (17%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| White | 2482 (55%) | 398 (46%) | 182 (36%) | 286 (41%) | 528 (54%) | 1088 (76%) | 0.40 (0.35–0.44) | |
| All other groups | 289 (6%) | 45 (5%) | 34 (7%) | 57 (8%) | 64 (7%) | 89 (6%) | 0.59 (0.47–0.73) | |
| Racial/gender groups | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Black women | 1290 (29%) | 337 (39%) | 230 (45%) | 283 (40%) | 273 (28%) | 167 (12%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| White women | 1481 (33%) | 291 (34%) | 114 (22%) | 214 (31%) | 332 (34%) | 530 (37%) | 0.45 (0.40–0.52) | |
| Black men | 425 (9%) | 88 (10%) | 63 (12%) | 75 (11%) | 119 (12%) | 80 (6%) | 0.73 (0.60–0.89) | |
| White men | 1001 (22%) | 107 (12%) | 68 (13%) | 72 (10%) | 196 (20%) | 558 (39%) | 0.21 (0.18–0.25) | |
| All other racial/ethnic groups | 289 (6%) | 45 (5%) | 34 (7%) | 57 (8%) | 64 (7%) | 89 (6%) | 0.51 (0.40–0.64) | |
| Educational attainment | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Less than high school | 186 (4%) | 43 (5%) | 22 (4%) | 43 (6%) | 36 (4%) | 42 (3%) | 0.90 (0.69–1.18) | |
| High school or some college | 2159 (49%) | 491 (58%) | 296 (59%) | 404 (59%) | 462 (48%) | 506 (36%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| College or above | 2054 (47%) | 311 (37%) | 184 (37%) | 241 (35%) | 466 (48%) | 852 (61%) | 0.62 (0.56–0.70) | |
| Household income | <0.0001 | |||||||
| <$15000 | 827 (18%) | 204 (24%) | 121 (24%) | 184 (26%) | 166 (17%) | 152 (11%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| $15000 to $49999 | 1708 (38%) | 384 (44%) | 219 (43%) | 291 (42%) | 381 (39%) | 433 (30%) | 0.92 (0.79–1.07) | |
| $50000+ | 1947 (43%) | 280 (32%) | 169 (33%) | 225 (32%) | 436 (44%) | 837 (59%) | 0.59 (0.51–0.69) | |
| Chronic disease | 0.33 | |||||||
| No chronic disease | 825 (19%) | 158 (18%) | 87 (17%) | 98 (14%) | 175 (18%) | 307 (22%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Any chronic disease | 3616 (81%) | 701 (82%) | 420 (83%) | 593 (86%) | 803 (82%) | 1099 (78%) | 1.07 (0.93–1.23) | |
| Diabetes | 1686 (38%) | 362 (42%) | 209 (42%) | 309 (44%) | 370 (38%) | 436 (31%) | 1.05 (0.93–1.19) | 0.41 |
| Chronic lung disease | 1155 (26%) | 253 (30%) | 138 (28%) | 195 (29%) | 247 (26%) | 322 (23%) | 1.11 (0.98–1.26) | 0.10 |
| Cardiovascular disease | 3040 (68%) | 586 (68%) | 360 (71%) | 515 (74%) | 677 (69%) | 902 (64%) | 1.06 (0.93–1.20) | 0.41 |
| Kidney disease | 245 (6%) | 34 (4%) | 24 (5%) | 49 (7%) | 57 (6%) | 81 (6%) | 0.81 (0.64–1.04) | 0.10 |
| Cancer under active treatment | 236 (5%) | 37 (4%) | 30 (6%) | 30 (4%) | 50 (5%) | 89 (6%) | 0.84 (0.65–1.08) | 0.18 |
| Other chronic disease | 890 (20%) | 170 (20%) | 126 (25%) | 172 (25%) | 203 (21%) | 219 (16%) | 1.08 (0.94–1.24) | 0.29 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 30.1 (7.7) | 31.2 (8.1) | 31.2 (7.9) | 31.5 (8.0) | 29.8 (7.9) | 28.4 (6.7) | 1.01 (1.01–1.02) | <0.0001 |
| Self-reported health status | 0.71 | |||||||
| Excellent | 472 (11%) | 98 (11%) | 39 (8%) | 60 (9%) | 71 (7%) | 204 (14%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Very good | 1613 (36%) | 309 (36%) | 169 (33%) | 194 (28%) | 362 (37%) | 579 (41%) | 1.09 (0.90–1.31) | |
| Good | 1629 (36%) | 315 (36%) | 202 (40%) | 304 (43%) | 357 (36%) | 451 (32%) | 1.12 (0.93–1.36) | |
| Fair | 677 (15%) | 124 (14%) | 92 (18%) | 125 (18%) | 178 (18%) | 158 (11%) | 1.17 (0.94–1.45) | |
| Poor | 93 (2%) | 22 (3%) | 7 (1%) | 18 (3%) | 15 (2%) | 31 (2%) | 1.13 (0.76–1.69) | |
| Smoking status | 0.23 | |||||||
| nonsmoker | 4007 (89%) | 764 (88%) | 446 (88%) | 612 (88%) | 871 (89%) | 1314 (92%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Current smoker | 477 (11%) | 104 (12%) | 63 (12%) | 87 (12%) | 113 (11%) | 110 (8%) | 1.11 (0.94–1.32) | |
| Employment status | 0.81 | |||||||
| Not currently employed | 3083 (69%) | 567 (65%) | 335 (66%) | 491 (70%) | 677 (69%) | 1013 (71%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Currently employed | 1399 (31%) | 300 (35%) | 174 (34%) | 210 (30%) | 306 (31%) | 409 (29%) | 0.99 (0.87–1.11) | |
| Time spent working within 6 ft of others (hours/day; among those working) | 0.06 | |||||||
| 0 | 467 (33%) | 90 (30%) | 51 (29%) | 72 (34%) | 93 (30%) | 161 (39%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| 0.1 to <1 | 310 (22%) | 56 (19%) | 28 (16%) | 56 (27%) | 72 (24%) | 98 (24%) | 1.04 (0.80–1.35) | |
| 1 to <3 | 153 (11%) | 29 (10%) | 32 (19%) | 17 (8%) | 33 (11%) | 42 (10%) | 1.44 (1.04–2.00) | |
| ≥3 | 467 (33%) | 125 (42%) | 62 (36%) | 65 (31%) | 107 (35%) | 108 (26%) | 1.27 (1.01–1.60) | |
| Household composition | 0.04 | |||||||
| Lives alone | 1338 (30%) | 294 (34%) | 146 (29%) | 238 (34%) | 297 (31%) | 363 (26%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Lives with other adult(s) and no children | 2669 (60%) | 456 (53%) | 295 (59%) | 377 (55%) | 583 (61%) | 958 (68%) | 0.90 (0.80–1.02) | |
| Lives with child(ren) | 414 (9%) | 108 (13%) | 61 (12%) | 75 (11%) | 81 (8%) | 89 (6%) | 1.13 (0.92–1.38) | |
| Spirituality/religiosity | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Very | 2279 (52%) | 526 (62%) | 294 (58%) | 386 (56%) | 475 (49%) | 598 (42%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Fairly | 1512 (34%) | 254 (30%) | 156 (31%) | 229 (33%) | 358 (37%) | 515 (37%) | 0.75 (0.66–0.84) | |
| Slightly/ Not at all | 631 (14%) | 68 (8%) | 54 (11%) | 74 (11%) | 138 (14%) | 297 (21%) | 0.55 (0.47–0.65) | |
| Health insurance status | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Any Medicare/Medicaid | 2976 (66%) | 530 (61%) | 317 (62%) | 465 (66%) | 665 (68%) | 999 (70%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Any private/no Medicare or Medicaid | 1063 (24%) | 211 (24%) | 118 (23%) | 164 (23%) | 233 (24%) | 337 (24%) | 0.84 (0.73–0.97) | |
| Only military/other | 296 (7%) | 82 (9%) | 46 (9%) | 45 (6%) | 57 (6%) | 66(5%) | 1.24 (0.99–1.55) | |
| No health insurance | 142 (3%) | 42 (5%) | 27 (5%) | 26 (4%) | 28 (3%) | 19 (1%) | 1.55 (1.13–2.12) | |
| Self-rated reading abilityc | 1.4 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.8) | 1.4 (0.7) | 1.3 (0.6) | 1.19 (1.10–1.27) | <0.0001 |
| Confidence in filling out medical formsd | 1.4 (0.7) | 1.4 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.8) | 1.4 (0.7) | 1.3 (0.6) | 1.17 (1.08–1.26) | <0.0001 |
| Need help reading materials from doctors | 194 (4%) | 37 (4%) | 36 (7%) | 43 (6%) | 36 (4%) | 42 (3%) | 1.22 (0.94–1.58) | 0.13 |
| Experience of discrimination in healthcare due to race or socioeconomic status | 0.005 | |||||||
| No experience | 3641 (81%) | 655 (75%) | 386 (76%) | 521 (74%) | 800 (81%) | 1279 (90%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Experienced discrimination | 598 (13%) | 154 (18%) | 94 (18%) | 126 (18%) | 129 (13%) | 95 (7%) | 1.29 (1.10–1.52) | |
| Unknown | 247 (6%) | 59 (7%) | 29 (6%) | 54 (8%) | 55(6%) | 50 (4%) | 1.17 (0.93–1.48) | |
| COVID-19 preventive behaviors | ||||||||
| Personal protective behaviors scoree | 25.3 (4.7) | 24.7 (6.1) | 25.6 (4.5) | 25.9 (4.4) | 25.5 (4.2) | 25.1 (4.2) | 0.96 (0.95–0.97) | <0.0001 |
| Community protective behaviors scoref | 18.3 (4.8) | 17.3 (6.1) | 18.4 (4.8) | 18.5 (4.6) | 18.6 (4.4) | 18.6 (4.1) | 0.94 (0.93–0.96) | <0.0001 |
| Perceived likelihood of getting COVID-19g | 2.4 (1.0) | 2.1 (1.1) | 2.4 (1.0) | 2.4 (1.1) | 2.5 (1.0) | 2.4 (1.0) | 0.84 (0.79–0.88) | <0.0001 |
| Perceived likelihood of surviving COVID-19g | 3.7 (1.3) | 3.9 (1.3) | 3.6 (1.3) | 3.6 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.3) | 1.01 (0.96–1.05) | 0.81 |
| COVID-19 testing | 0.06 | |||||||
| Never tested | 2655 (59%) | 533 (62%) | 281 (55%) | 400 (57%) | 565 (58%) | 876 (62%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Tested negative | 1674 (37%) | 310 (36%) | 198 (39%) | 276 (40%) | 388 (40%) | 502 (35%) | 0.88 (0.78–0.98) | |
| Ever tested positive | 140 (3%) | 23 (3%) | 29 (6%) | 21 (3%) | 28 (3%) | 39 (3%) | 0.88 (0.65–1.20) | |
| Household member tested positive for COVID-19 (among those living with others) | 0.94 | |||||||
| No | 3004 (96%) | 552 (97%) | 335 (94%) | 442 (96%) | 653 (96%) | 1022 (97%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Yes | 119 (4%) | 20 (4%) | 20 (6%) | 17 (4%) | 27 (4%) | 35 (3%) | 0.99 (0.71–1.38) | |
| Had or intend to have an influenza vaccination in 2019–2021 | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Yes | 3478 (78%) | 456 (53%) | 361 (71%) | 490 (70%) | 841 (86%) | 1330 (94%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| No | 986 (22%) | 402 (47%) | 147 (29%) | 206 (30%) | 140 (14%) | 91 (6%) | 4.19 (3.66–4.79) | |
| Childhood vaccines are safe | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Yes | 4184 (94%) | 714 (83%) | 465 (92%) | 645 (93%) | 957 (98%) | 1403 (99%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| No | 264 (6%) | 143 (17%) | 41 (8%) | 47 (7%) | 19 (2%) | 14 (1%) | 5.38 (4.22–6.87) | |
| Confidence in COVID-19 vaccine effectivenessh | 3.0 (1.3) | 2.0 (1.3) | 2.2 (1.0) | 2.7 (1.0) | 3.3 (1.1) | 3.9 (1.1) | 0.41 (0.39–0.43) | <0.0001 |
| Confidence in COVID-19 vaccine safetyh | 3.1 (1.4) | 2.0 (1.3) | 2.2 (1.1) | 2.7 (1.0) | 3.3 (1.1) | 4.0 (1.1) | 0.41 (0.39–0.43) | <0.0001 |
| COMMUNITY CHARACTERISTICS | ||||||||
| Urban/rural status | 0.0003 | |||||||
| Urban/suburban resident | 3557 (79%) | 661 (76%) | 403 (79%) | 556 (79%) | 769 (78%) | 1168 (82%) | 1.00 (ref) | |
| Rural resident | 928 (21%) | 206 (24%) | 106 (21%) | 145 (21%) | 215 (22%) | 256 (18%) | 1.27 (1.12–1.45) | |
| State influenza vaccination ranking | 60.6 (3.9) | 60.3 (3.7) | 60.5 (3.8) | 60.4 (4.0) | 60.3 (3.9) | 61.0 (3.9) | 1.00 (0.98–1.01) | 0.76 |
| Area Deprivation Index ranking 2018 | 62.7 (25.4) | 68.7 (23.3) | 67.7 (23.6) | 67.3 (24.0) | 62.7 (24.8) | 54.9 (26.2) | 1.01 (1.01–1.01) | <0.0001 |
| COVID-19 community burden | 22.8 (14.7) | 22.5 (14.3) | 22.1 (13.8) | 22.6 (14.8) | 24.0 (15.1) | 22.6 (14.9) | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | 0.51 |
| Unacast social distancing grade | 0.93 (0.15) | 0.92 (0.15) | 0.92 (0.16) | 0.92 (0.15) | 0.93 (0.14) | 0.94 (0.14) | 0.54 (0.37–0.77) | 0.0007 |
| Pandemic Vulnerability Index | 0.55 (0.04) | 0.55 (0.04) | 0.55 (0.04) | 0.55 (0.04) | 0.55 (0.04) | 0.54 (0.05) | 2.07 (0.60–7.16) | 0.25 |
aPresented as n (%) for categorical variables and mean (standard deviation) for continuous variables.
bOdds ratios and p-values were derived from proportional odds models for risk of low intent additionally adjusted for age, sex, race. The six specific chronic diseases were additionally adjusted for each other.
c1 – Excellent, 2 – Very good, 3 – Good, 4 – Okay, 5 – Poor.
d1 – Extremely, 2 – Quite a bit, 3 – Somewhat, 4 – A little bit, 5 – Not at all.
eSum of days per week of washing hands or using sanitizer frequently, cleaning surfaces touched, wearing face masks, and keeping 6 feet away from others. Range from 0–28.
fSum of days per week of avoiding large gatherings, avoiding restaurants or bars, and following government guidelines. Range from 0–21.
g1- Very unlikely, 2- Somewhat unlikely, 3 – Neither unlikely nor likely, 4 – Somewhat likely, 5 – Very likely.
h1 – Very unconfident, 2 – Somewhat unconfident, 3 – Neither unconfident nor confident, 4 – Somewhat confident, 5 – Very confident.