Table 1.

Common DAMP receptors, downstream, and their roles in immunity

DAMPS	Receptor	Downstream	Role in immunity
HMGB1	TLR2, TLR4, TLR9	MyD88-TRAF6-NF-κB MAPK/ERK	Induce cytokine release and recruit leucocytes
Histones	TLR2, TLR4	MyD88-TRAF6-NF-κB MAPK/ERK	Activate human polymorphonuclear neutrophils
HSP	TLR2, TLR4	MyD88-TRAF6-NF-κB MAPK/ERK	Promote maturation and activity of DCs
IL-1	IL-1 R	MyD88-TRAF6-NF-κB MAPK/ERK	Promote tumor cell proliferation and neo-vascularization
Mitochondrial N-formyl peptides	FPR1	ERK, Akt, and STAT3	Enhance vascular permeability
CIRBP	TLR4	MyD88-TRAF6-NF-κB MAPK/ERK	Promote cell migration
S100 calcium-binding proteins	RAGE	NOX2, NF-κB	Activate endothelial cells, macrophages, and lymphocytes
ATP	P2XR	(Na+, Ca2+, K+) p38 MAPK, PLA2	Recruit macrophages and promote clearance of apoptotic cells
HDGF	NUCLEOLIN	NCL-PI3K-AKT	Stimulate the growth and proliferation of fibroblasts, endothelial cells, vascular smooth and some hepatoma cells
fHA	TLR4	TIRAP, MyD88 and Trif	Induces DCs to produce the proinflammatory cytokine and upregulate costimulatory molecules
mtDNA	TLR9, FPR1	cGAS-STING-IRF3	Activate circulating neutrophils to mediate tissue injury

Data from References^{45,46,97–114}

HMGB1, high mobility group box 1; TLR, toll-like receptor; HSP, heat shock protein; IL, interleukin; FPR1, N-Formyl peptide receptor; CIRBP, cold inducible RNA binding protein; RAGE, receptor of advanced glycation end-product; ATP, adenosine triphosphate.