Table 4.

Physical methods for the control of P. digitatum and P. italicum.

Treatments	Treatment intensity	Cultivars	Pathogens	References
Hot water treatment	Dipping for 5 min at 50°C	Oranges and lemons	P. digitatum	Smoot and Melvin, 1963
	Brief immersions for 2–5 min at 45–55°C	Citrus spp.	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Spalding and Reeder, 1986; Couey, 1989; Rodov et al., 1995
	Dipping at 50–55°C for 150 s, incubated at 20°C for 7 days	Oranges and lemons	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Palou et al., 2001
	2–3 min hot water dipping at 50–53°C; 56°C for 20 s; Hot water rinse brushing (HWRB) at 56°C for 20 s; 63°C for 15 s; 62.8°C for 30 s	Oranges	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Schirra et al., 1997; Porat et al., 2000; Smilanick et al., 2003; Strano et al., 2014
	3 min hot water dipping at 53°C	Pummelo grapefruit hybrid “Oroblanco”	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Rodov et al., 1995
	HWRB at 56°C for 20 s	Tangerines, oranges, and red grapefruits	P. digitatum	Porat et al., 2000
	Hot water dipping at 52–53°C for 2 min. HWRB at 63°C for 15 s	Lemons	P. digitatum	Nafussi et al., 2001; Smilanick et al., 2003
	HWRB at 62°C for 20 s	Oranges and lemons	P. digitatum	Lanza et al., 2002
	HWRB at 56°C for 20 s	Tangerine, oranges, and red grapefruits	P. digitatum	Porat et al., 2000
	Hot water treatment at 56–60°C for 10 s	Pummelo grapefruit hybrid “Oroblanco”	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Rodov et al., 2000
	HWRB at 55°C for 20 s	Kumquats	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Ben-Yehoshua and Porat, 2005
	3 min hot water dipping at 56°C	Citrus reticulata Blanco × Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	P. digitatum	Kyriacou, 2011
Curing	35°C for 72 h	Washington Navel oranges	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Tuset, 1987
	33°C for 65 h	Oranges and lemons	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Plaza et al., 2003, 2004a
	32°C in a saturated water atmosphere for 48 h	Lemons	P. digitatum	Stange and Eckert, 1994
	Two cycles intermittent curing for 18 h at 38°C	Mandarins	P. italicum	Pérez et al., 2005
	Curing at 40°C for 18 h	Oranges	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Nunes et al., 2007
	32°C for 3 days	“Femminello” lemons and “Valencia” oranges	P. digitatum	Lanza and Di Martino Aleppo, 1996
	36°C and longer exposure	Tarocco oranges	P. digitatum	Lanza and Di Martino Aleppo, 1996
	“Valencia,” “Pineapple” oranges, and “Flame” grapefruit at 30–35°C for 24 h or longer optimum condition for “Valencia” oranges and “Flame” grapefruit at 35°C with 95–100% humidity for 48 h	“Valencia” oranges, “Flame” grapefruit, and “Pineapple” oranges	P. digitatum	Zhang and Swingle, 2005
	30°C with high humidity (90–95%) for 72 h	Satsuma mandarins	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Kinay et al., 2005
Non-ionizing irradiation and UV-C	Fruit exposed to low doses of UV-C irradiation	Marsh seedless grapefruit	P. digitatum	Droby et al., 1993
	UV-C application at doses of 0.5 KJ m−2	Star Ruby grapefruit	P. digitatum	D'Hallewin et al., 2000
	Low UV-C irradiation (7.92 kJ m−2) inactivates spores on the surface of the fruit	Oranges	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Gündüz and Pazir, 2013
	The antifungal activity of lemon peel extracts was improved by short-time UV-B irradiation	Lemons	P. digitatum	Ruiz et al., 2017
	210 and 630 μmol m−2 s−1 LED blue light quantum fluxes of boosted scoparone in the flavedo	Oranges	P. digitatum	Ballester and Lafuente, 2017
	Low-intensity LED blue light irradiation lowered blue mold symptom development and suppressed fungal sporulation in satsuma mandarins	Mandarins	P. italicum	Yamaga et al., 2015
Ionizing irradiation	510 and 875 Gy X-ray irradiations decreased the sporulation of P. digitatum and P. italicum on mandarins that were treated with sodium carbonate	Mandarins	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Palou et al., 2007
	1.0 kGy gamma-irradiation demonstrated germ tube elongation, total inhibition of spore germination, and mycelial growth of P. digitatum	Mandarins	P. digitatum	Jeong et al., 2016
Cold storage	Temperatures of 3–5°C and relative humidity of 90–95%	Oranges and mandarins	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Kader, 2002
	Temperatures of 10–14°C	Lemons, limes, and grapefruit	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Kader, 2002
	Temperatures of 0–3°C	Citrus spp	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Tuset, 1987; Snowdon, 1990; Brown and Eckert, 2000a,b
Storage in a controlled atmosphere	5–10% O2 + 0–5% CO2	Oranges and mandarins	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Kader, 2002
	5–10% O2 + 0–10% CO2	Lemons, limes, and grapefruit	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Kader, 2002
Storage in ozonated atmosphere	200 μl/L ozone gas in humid air with 95% relative humidity at 5°C for 1 h	Citrus spp	P. digitatum and P. italicum	Margosan and Smilanick, 1998