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. 2021 Sep 2;80(4):677–698. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuab061

Table 2.

Advantages and disadvantages of various analytical techniques for the determination of vitamin K in human biological matrices

Technique Sensitivity (nM if not specified otherwise) Advantages Disadvantages References
LC-PDA/UV

  • K1: 67–89a

  • MK-4: 742a

 Commonly available technique

  • Complicated sample treatment

  • Low sensitivity

 Zhang et al (2019)169; Chatzimichalakis et al (2004)168
LC-FLD

  • K1: 0.07b–0.22a

  • MK-4: 0.09b–0.45a

  • MK-7: 0.05b–0.26a

  • Commonly available technique

  • Sensitivity

  • Pre- or post-column reduction

  • Complicated sample treatment

 Ahmed et al (2015)172; Kishikawa and Kuroda (2014)170; Klapkova et al (2018)171; Zhang et al (2019)169
LC-EC

  • K1: 0.11a

  • MK-4: 0.22a

  • MK-7: 0.16a

  • Metabolites in urine: 3.5 fMa

 Low limits of detection

  • Long analysis times (up to 80 min)

  • Complicated sample treatment

 Zhang et al (2019)169; Harrington et al (2005)173; Kamao et al (2005)174
LC-CL

  • K1: 0.07a

  • MK-4: 0.09a

  • MK-7: 0.16a

  • K2: 6.4a

  • Wide working range

  • Sensitivity

  • Reaction with CL reagents

  • Long analysis times (up to 50 min)

  • Complicated sample treatment

 Ahmed et al (2011)177; Zhang et al (2019)169
LC-MS

  • K1: 0.07c–0.44 or 1 pmol/gb

  • MK-4: 0.07c–0.47

  • MK-7: 0.05c–1.55

  • MK4-13: 1–30 pmol/gb

  • Selectivity

  • Sensitivity

  • Financial investment

  • Highly skilled personnel

  • Matrix effects

  • Complicated sample treatment

 Gentili et al (2014)176; Dunovska et al (2019)179; Abro et al (2014)183; Kamao et al (2007)175; Karl et al (2014)167; Levêque et al (2019)182; Hu et al (2018)180
SFC-MS K1: 0.22a,b

  • Short analysis time (4 min)

  • Selectivity

  • Matrix effects

  • Not commonly used

  • Complicated sample treatment

 Górská (2019)184; Sandvik et al (2017)178
Immunochemical assays

  • K1: 0.11–44a,b

  • K2: 0.56–17.98a,b

  • Commonly available technique

  • Low operational cost

  • Small amount of sample and solvents

  • Cross-reactions

  • Impossible to differentiate individual forms of vitamin K2

 MyBioSource185–187
Electrochemical sensors K2: 9 pg/mLa (0.02)d Simplicity, cost effectiveness, reproducibility, easy handling, miniaturization and high sensitivity

  • Not commonly used

  • Application till now only in microbiological, food and pharmaceutical samples

  • Impossible to differentiate individual forms of vitamin K2

 Jedlinska et al (2018)181
a

LOD (limit of detection).

b

LOQ (limit of quantification).

c

LLOQ (lower limit of quantification).

d

Recalculated for MK-4.

Abbreviations:K1, Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone); K2, Vitamin K2 (either the methodology does not allow differentiation between individual K2 forms or not specified); LC-PDA/UV, liquid chromatography with photodiode/ultraviolet detection; LC-FLD, liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection; LC-EC, liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection; LC-CL, liquid chromatography with chemiluminescence detection; CL, chemiluminescence; LC-MS, liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection; SFC-MS, supercritical fluid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection