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. 2022 Mar 10;8(2):12. doi: 10.1007/s40828-022-00163-4

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Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their ligand specificity. Different TLRs and their ligand specificity. TLRs recognize a variety of pathogen-associated structures (PAMPs). The recognition of LPS by TLR-4 requires the accessory proteins CD14 and MD-2. TLR-2 recognizes very different ligands and interacts with TLR-6 and TLR-1. TLR-3 is involved in the recognition of viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), TLR-5 binds flagellin, a protein of bacterial flagella, and TLR-9 recognizes bacterial DNA on the basis of its unmethylated CpG motifs ([76] with kind permission)